Music Systemisers and Music Empathisers - Do They Rate Expressiveness of Computer Generated Performances the Same?

(Abstract to follow

The Role of Individual Difference in Judging Expressiveness of Computer-Assisted Music Performances by Experts

Computational systems for generating expressive musical performances have been studied for several decades now. These models are generally evaluated by comparing their predictions with actual performances, both from a performance parameter and a subjective point of view, often focusing on very specific aspects of the model. However, little is known about how listeners evaluate the generated performances and what factors influence their judgement and appreciation. In this article, we present two studies, conducted during two dedicated workshops, to start understanding how the audience judges entire performances employing different approaches to generating musical expression. In the preliminary study, 40 participants completed a questionnaire in response to five different computer-generated and computer-assisted performances, rating preference and describing the expressiveness of the performances. In the second, \u201cGATM\u201d (Gruppo di Analisi e Teoria Musicale) study, 23 participants also completed the Music Cognitive Style questionnaire. Results indicated that music systemizers tend to describe musical expression in terms of the formal aspects of the music, and music empathizers tend to report expressiveness in terms of emotions and characters. However, high systemizers did not differ from high empathizers in their mean preference score across the five pieces. We also concluded that listeners tend not to focus on the basic technical aspects of playing when judging computer-assisted and computer-generated performances. Implications for the significance of individual differences in judging musical expression are discussed

Computational Models of Expressive Music Performance: A Comprehensive and Critical Review

Expressive performance is an indispensable part of music making. When playing a piece, expert performers shape various parameters (tempo, timing, dynamics, intonation, articulation, etc.) in ways that are not prescribed by the notated score, in this way producing an expressive rendition that brings out dramatic, affective, and emotional qualities that may engage and affect the listeners. Given the central importance of this skill for many kinds of music, expressive performance has become an important research topic for disciplines like musicology, music psychology, etc. This paper focuses on a specific thread of research: work on computational music performance models. Computational models are attempts at codifying hypotheses about expressive performance in terms of mathematical formulas or computer programs, so that they can be evaluated in systematic and quantitative ways. Such models can serve at least two purposes: they permit us to systematically study certain hypotheses regarding performance; and they can be used as tools to generate automated or semi-automated performances, in artistic or educational contexts. The present article presents an up-to-date overview of the state of the art in this domain. We explore recent trends in the field, such as a strong focus on data-driven (machine learning) approaches; a growing interest in interactive expressive systems, such as conductor simulators and automatic accompaniment systems; and an increased interest in exploring cognitively plausible features and models. We provide an in-depth discussion of several important design choices in such computer models, and discuss a crucial (and still largely unsolved) problem that is hindering systematic progress: the question of how to evaluate such models in scientifically and musically meaningful ways. From all this, we finally derive some research directions that should be pursued with priority, in order to advance the field and our understanding of expressive music performance

Perspectivas de pianistas sobre expressividade em performance musical como intérpretes e ouvintes

A presente pesquisa teve o objetivo de investigar perspectivas sobre expressividade em performance musical a partir de concepções de pianistas em nível de graduação e pós-graduação como intérpretes e ouvintes em três modalidades de escuta: i) áudio; ii) áudio e vídeo; iii) áudio e vídeo com partitura. O método envolveu uma abordagem quali-quantitativa com duas fases de entrevistas e dois encontros com um grupo focal. Na primeira etapa de entrevistas foi realizado um mapeamento sobre as concepções de expressividade de 12 pós-graduandos em música/piano, assim como suas impressões sobre obras que interpretaram em recitais. No grupo focal, duas performances (em áudio) de uma mesma música foram escutadas e discutidas sobre a natureza expressiva das interpretações. Na segunda fase de entrevistas, uma terceira performance foi acrescentada como estímulo em três modalidades de escuta e outros 12 participantes graduandos e pós-graduandos fizeram parte da amostra. Dentre os 17 parâmetros estruturais e expressivos apresentados, pôde-se observar que alguns foram considerados mais relevantes que outros para esta população de ouvintes em termos de expressividade: articulação, caráter/clima/humor, dinâmica, gestual e ritmo. Por outro lado, os parâmetros menos indicados nas entrevistas foram o registro, métrica e gênero/estilo. Os resultados indicaram que as diferentes modalidades de escuta afetaram em algum grau a percepção dos ouvintes em relação à expressividade dos pianistas nesse estudo. A visualização dos movimentos dos pianistas afetou a percepção dos ouvintes sobre a expressividade. A partitura demonstrou ser uma ferramenta abundante em informações, auxiliando-os a elucidar suas percepções positivas/negativas em relação à expressividade. Um conceito central revelado a partir dos dados desta pesquisa foi a singularidade compartilhada, seja como intérprete, seja como ouvinte à medida que os limites das convenções estilísticas nortearam a recepção e apropriação/produção da obra. Observamos que os ouvintes (ainda que alguns com dificuldades em verbalização) demonstram habilidades em modos de perceber e compreender a natureza expressiva e singular de cada performance.The present research aimed to investigate perspectives of pianists as performers and listeners about expressivity addressing interpretive conceptions and modalities of listening: i) audio, ii) audio and video; iii) audio and video with score. The method involved a qualitative and quantitative approach, with two phases of interviews and two meetings with a focus group. In the first stage of interviews, a mapping was made of the expressiveness conceptions of 12 postgraduates in music/piano, as well as their impressions of pieces they performed in recitals. In the focus group, two performances (audio) of the same piece were heard and discussed about the expressive nature of the interpretations. In the second phase of interviews, with the three listening modalities, a third performance was added as a stimulus and 12 other undergraduate and postgraduate participants were part of the sample. Among the 17 structural and expressive parameters presented, it was observed that some were considered more relevant than others for these listeners in terms of expressiveness: articulation, character/climate/mood, dynamics, gestures and rhythm. On the other hand, the parameters less indicated in the interviews were the registration, metric and music genre/style. The results indicated that the different listening modalities affected to some degree the perception of the listeners regarding the expressiveness of the pianists in this study. The visualization of movements affected the listeners' perception of expressiveness. The score proved to be an abundant information tool, helping them to elucidate their positive/negative perceptions regarding expressiveness. A central concept revealed from the data of this research was a shared singularity, either as an interpreter or as a listener as the boundaries of stylistic conventions guided the reception and appropriation/production of the work. We note that listeners (though some with difficulties in verbalization) demonstrate skills in ways of perceiving and understanding the expressive and unique nature of each performance

A expressividade por meio da manipulação de recursos de expressão e evocação de emoção na performance pianística de crianças

O presente estudo, sob a temática da expressividade, buscou investigar meios de execução e de organização dos elementos musicais, tendo a manipulação expressiva (imposta ou sugerida) como estímulo à realização de contrastes entre possíveis diferentes versões de uma mesma peça pelo estudante de piano, bem como o estímulo à reflexão dos estudantes a partir de imagens, metáforas e emoções como alusão ao resultado sonoro atingido ou a ser buscado por estes. Três crianças, com idades entre 7 e 11 anos, e tempo de estudo do piano entre 6 meses e 2 anos e meio, estiveram diante das tarefas de manipulação expressiva, e estas se deram em estratégias de dupla natureza: em um primeiro encontro, como foco de manipulação eram impostos aos estudantes parâmetros específicos em seus diferentes contrastes de andamento, dinâmica e articulação; em um segundo encontro, aos estudantes eram sugeridas emoções básicas como foco de manipulação. Em uma segunda etapa de coleta de dados, avaliadores externos, bem como o próprio doutorando como avaliador, atribuíram conceitos de 1 a 5 em escala de Likert sobre cada elemento musical componente de cada produto de performance manipulado pelas crianças. Os resultados das avaliações demonstraram que esta segunda estratégia de manipulação (com foco em emoções básicas) foram mais efetivas entre os participantes. Ainda, esses resultados indicaram que elementos próprios da realização estrutural da peça (acuidade de notas e precisão rítmica) se mostram como maior preocupação e foco desses estudantes, mas também revelaram o timbre como elemento mais valorizado entre os participantes na segunda sessão de coleta, indicando uma possível expressividade natural nas crianças. Como proposição de tese, um modelo piramidal foi elaborado com função de hierarquizar os elementos componentes da performance (acuidade de notas, precisão e organização rítmica, equilíbrio sonoro, timing, fraseado, timbre e ressonância) em estágios de complexidade de execução.The present study, under the theme of expressiveness, sought to investigate means of execution and organization of musical elements, with expressive manipulation (imposed or suggested) as a stimulus to the realization of contrasts between possible different versions of the same piece by the piano student, as well as the stimulus for students' reflection based on images, metaphors, and emotions as an allusion to the sound result achieved or to be sought by them. Three children, aged between 7 and 11 years, and with piano study of 6 months to 2 and a half years, were faced with expressive manipulation tasks, and these took place in dual-nature strategies: in a first meeting, as focus of manipulation, specific parameters were imposed on the students in their different contrasts of tempo, dynamics and articulation; in a second meeting, students were suggested basic emotions as the focus of manipulation. In a second stage of data collection, external evaluators, as well as the doctoral student himself as evaluator, attributed grades from 1 to 5 on the Likert scale to each musical element that was part of each performance product manipulated by the children. The evaluation results showed that this second strategy of manipulation (focusing on basic emotions) was more effective among participants. Furthermore, these results indicated that elements typical of the structural realization of the piece (acuity of notes and rhythmic precision) are shown to be the greatest concern and focus of these students, but also revealed timbre as the most valued element among participants in the second collection session, indicating possible natural expressiveness in children. As a thesis proposition, a pyramidal model was elaborated in order to hierarchize the component elements of the performance (acuity of notes, precision and rhythmic organization, sound balance, timing, phrasing, timbre and resonance) in stages of performance complexity