Fake smiles: customer reactions to employees' display inauthenticity and choice restrictions

Frontline employees’ fake smiles (i.e., positive emotion display inauthenticity) frequently occur despite firms’ efforts to ensure real smiles in service delivery. Previous research on the effects of display inauthenticity on customers reveals considerable heterogeneity. Attempts to resolve this have largely been limited to stable and dispositional factors, which often escape managerial control. The present research investigates the impacts of display inauthenticity, choice restrictions, and their interaction on service performance. Choice restrictions may buffer inauthenticity effects as demonstrated by results from three factorial experiments in different contexts (e.g., restrictions of service provider choice in predelivery in Study 1 and in-store choice restrictions during service delivery in Studies 2 and 3). Frontline employees’ display inauthenticity negatively affects service performance only if customers are subjected to low but not high choice restrictions. The interaction effect is explained by customers’ interdependent self-construal and is generalizable to actual spending behaviors. Our findings inform managers about the interplay of increasingly common inauthenticity and choice restrictions due to market shocks such as COVID-19 and provide insights into managerial interventions that can be used to mitigate the effects of inauthenticity on customers.</p

Marking as judgment

An aspect of assessment which has received little attention compared with perennial concerns, such as standards or reliability, is the role of judgment in marking. This paper explores marking as an act of judgment, paying particular attention to the nature of judgment and the processes involved. It brings together studies which have explored marking from a psychological perspective for the purpose of critical discussion of the light they shed on each other and on the practice of marking. Later stages speculate on recent developments in psychology and neuroscience which may cast further light on educational assessment

On the moderators of trait avoidance motivation in predicting cognitive biases and adjustment

The present research focused on motivational and personality traits measuring individual differences in the experience of negative affect, in reactivity to negative events, and in the tendency to avoid threats. In this thesis, such traits (i.e., neuroticism and dispositional avoidance motivation) are jointly referred to as trait avoidance motivation. The seven studies presented here examined the moderators of such traits in predicting risk judgments, negatively biased processing, and adjustment. Given that trait avoidance motivation encompasses reactivity to negative events and tendency to avoid threats, it can be considered surprising that this trait does not seem to be related to risk judgments and that it seems to be inconsistently related to negatively biased information processing. Previous work thus suggests that some variable(s) moderate these relations. Furthermore, recent research has suggested that despite the close connection between trait avoidance motivation and (mal)adjustment, measures of cognitive performance may moderate this connection. However, it is unclear whether this moderation is due to different response processes between individuals with different cognitive tendencies or abilities, or to the genuinely buffering effect of high cognitive ability against the negative consequences of high trait avoidance motivation. Studies 1-3 showed that there is a modest direct relation between trait avoidance motivation and risk judgments, but studies 2-3 demonstrated that state motivation moderates this relation. In particular, individuals in an avoidance state made high risk judgments regardless of their level of trait avoidance motivation. This result explained the disparity between the theoretical conceptualization of avoidance motivation and the results of previous studies suggesting that the relation between trait avoidance motivation and risk judgments is weak or nonexistent. Studies 5-6 examined threat identification tendency as a moderator for the relationship between trait avoidance motivation and negatively biased processing. However, no evidence for such moderation was found. Furthermore, in line with previous work, the results of studies 5-6 suggested that trait avoidance motivation is inconsistently related to negatively biased processing, implying that theories concerning traits and information processing may need refining. Study 7 examined cognitive ability as a moderator for the relation between trait avoidance motivation and adjustment, and demonstrated that cognitive ability moderates the relation between trait avoidance motivation and indicators of both self-reported and objectively measured adjustment. Thus, the results of Study 7 supported the buffer explanation for the moderating influence of cognitive performance. To summarize, the results showed that it is possible to find factors that consistently moderate the relations between traits and important outcomes (e.g. adjustment). Identifying such factors and studying their interplay with traits is one of the most important goals of current personality research. The present thesis contributed to this line of work in relation to trait avoidance motivation.Tämä väitöskirja keskittyi motivaatio- ja persoonallisuuspiirteisiin, jotka mittaavat yksilöiden välisiä eroja kielteisten tunteiden kokemisessa, herkkyydessä reagoida kielteisiin tapahtumiin ja ärsykkeisiin, sekä taipumuksessa välttää uhkia. Näihin piirteisiin viitataan tässä tutkimuksessa yhteisnimityksellä piirrevälttämismotivaatio. Väitöskirjassa esitellyt seitsemän tutkimusta selvittivät tekijöitä, jotka muokkaavat piirrevälttämismotivaation yhteyttä riskiarvioihin, kielteisen tiedon käsittelyyn, sekä yleiseen hyvinvointiin ja toimintakykyyn. Vaikka piirrevälttämismotivaatio käsittää yksilöiden väliset erot reaktioissa kielteisiin asioihin sekä taipumuksessa välttää uhkia, tämä piirre ei vaikuta juuri olevan yhteydessä riskiarvioihin, ja piirteen yhteydet kielteisen tiedon käsittelyyn ovat epäjohdonmukaisia. Näin ollen aikaisempi tutkimus viittaa siihen, että jokin tekijä muokkaa näitä yhteyksiä. Piirrevälttämismotivaatio on myös voimakkaassa yhteydessä (alhaiseen) psyykkiseen hyvinvointiin ja toimintakykyyn, mutta viimeaikaiset tutkimukset ovat osoittaneet, että yksilölliset erot kognitiivisissa taipumuksissa tai kyvyissä voivat muokata tätä yhteyttä. Ei kuitenkaan ole selvää, johtuuko tämä kognitiivisilta taipumuksiltaan eroavien ihmisten erilaisista vastaustaipumuksista, vai kognitiivisen kyvykkyyden suojaavasta vaikutuksesta korkean piirrevälttämismotivaation kielteisiä seurauksia vastaan. Tutkimukset 1-3 osoittivat, että piirrevälttämismotivaation ja riskiarvioiden välillä on heikohko suora yhteys, mutta tutkimusten 2-3 tulokset osoittivat lisäksi, että motivaatiotilat muokkaavat tätä yhteyttä: välttämismotivaatiotilassa olevat henkilöt tekivät korkeita riskiarvioita riippumatta piirrevälttämismotivaationsa tasosta. Tämä tulos selitti ristiriitaa piirrevälttämismotivaation teorian ja piirrevälttämismotivaation ja riskiarvioiden välisen suhteen heikkoudesta kertovien aiempien tulosten välillä. Sen sijaan yksilöiden väliset erot uhkien tunnistamisessa eivät vaikuttaneet piirrevälttämismotivaation ja kielteisen tiedon käsittelyn väliseen suhteeseen (tutkimukset 5-6). Kielteisen tiedon käsittelyä koskevat tulokset olivat aikaisempien tulosten tavoin epäjohdonmukaisia ja viittaavat siihen, että piirteiden ja tiedonkäsittelyn yhteyttä koskevia teorioita pitäisi tarkentaa. Tutkimus 7 selvitti kognitiivisen kyvykkyyden vaikutusta piirrevälttämismotivaation ja psyykkisen toimintakyvyn väliseen suhteeseen. Tulokset osoittivat, että kognitiivinen kyvykkyys muokkaa piirrevälttämismotivaation yhteyttä sekä itsearvioituun että objektiivisesti arvioituun toimintakykyyn. Tulokset tukivat teoriaa, jonka mukaan kognitiivinen kyvykkyys aidosti suojaa ihmisiä korkean välttämismotivaation kielteisiltä vaikutuksilta. Väitöskirjan tulokset tuottivat uutta tietoa välttämismotivaation vaikutuksia muokkaavista tekijöistä. Tällaisten tekijöiden tunnistaminen ja niiden ja persoonallisuuden yhteisvaikutusten tutkiminen on yksi nykypersoonallisuustutkimuksen tärkeimmistä tavoitteista, ja tämä väitöskirja osallistui tähän tutkimuslinjaan piirrevälttämismotivaation osalt

How Do Work Characteristics Influence Attributions of Moral Responsibility?: an Explorative Study at a University in Lebanon

This thesis aims at identifying the influence of certain work characteristics on attributions of moral responsibility to the self concerning ethical issues in organizations. Job design and business ethics have, as yet, mostly been treated as two separate fields. In its first part, this thesis therefore focuses on clarifying this relationship and undertakes a comprehensive literature review to consolidate the state of research on the relationship between these two fields. While 140 empirical studies were identified which relate work characteristics to ethical matters, almost all of these studies were developed from the perspective of disciplines other than business ethics. In its second part, the existing moral approbation model is extended by integrating Job Characteristics Theory (JCT) and Social Learning Theory (SLT). Based on this extended model, hypotheses are derived and substantiated to address how and which work characteristics influence attributions of moral responsibility to the self. These hypotheses propose that autonomy, prosocial job characteristics, job complexity, information processing, problem solving and feedback from others increase attributions of moral responsibility to the self, provided that ethical role models (ERM) interact with these work characteristics. In its third and last part, this thesis presents an empirical study to test the hypotheses. A survey was conducted at an American private university in Lebanon (Notre Dame University). 920 academic and non-academic staff members were invited to participate in the study and, as a result, 69 responses were collected. The moderation analysis provides support to three hypotheses, suggesting that autonomy, information processing and problem-solving interact with ERM and tend to increase attributions of responsibility to the self concerning ethical issues in the organization. These results indicate that more complex models are needed to capture and explain the effect of job designs on the ethical behaviors within the organization

Biases in Leadership Perception: The Role of Implicit Leadership Theories, Attachment Style, Attentional Capacity, and Accuracy Motivation

Previous work suggested that followers’ insecure attachment style might bias the accuracy of follower leadership ratings (Davidovitz, Mikulincer, Shaver, Izsak, & Popper, 2007; Hansbrough, 2012), possibly also via followers’ implicit leadership theories (ILTs; Berson, Dan, & Yammarino, 2006; Keller, 2003). We argue that both followers’ attachment anxiety and avoidance—due to non-constructive emotion regulation and hence limited attentional capacity—lead to a biased leadership perception due to a greater usage of ILTs when rating a leader. In three online studies with full-time employed participants from the US and UK, we assessed both followers’ ILTs and leadership ratings together with their attachment style. Using an experimental design, Study 1 (N = 218) had participants rate a fictitious leader presented in a written vignette. In Study 2 (N = 217), participants rated their own supervisor. In Study 3 (N = 260), participants were asked to watch a video of a team meeting before rating the leader. Results indicated that the higher participants’ attachment avoidance, the more they relied on their ILTs when rating a leader. Study 3 found support suggesting that this was due to a decrease of attentional capacity. However, when under high working memory demands, the higher attachment avoidance, the less they relied on their ILTs, probably due to a breakdown of their defense-mechanism of blocking out information related to social perception (Edelstein & Gillath, 2008; Mikulincer, Dolev, & Shaver, 2004). Perceptual biases related to attachment anxiety were inconsistent. Results from Study 3 suggest that this might have been due to the interplay of a lack of attentional capacity and heightened accuracy motivation for participants high in attachment anxiety

Enough is enough! Understanding environmentally driven multisensory experiences

The importance of sensory perception and sensory stimulation in creating pleasant consumption experiences has received increasing attention within recent years. Yet, while numerous studies investigate antecedents and consequences of sensory perception specific to a certain sense (vision, touch, audition, smell, and taste), limited research addresses sensation from a broader perspective by examining what constitutes sensing in sensations. Multiple studies are employed to investigate the totality of sensation rather than any sense specific sensation, by framing sensational experiences within the long tradition of atmospherics research. Here, the construct of need for sensation is conceptualized to reflect the notion of totality of sensation. Following a comprehensive review of common overlaps among three main research areas – atmospherics, servicescape, and sensory marketing – exploratory research guides the development of a new scale measuring the construct need for sensation. The current study posits need for sensation as the manner by which consumers extract value through multiple sensory inputs, both focal and non-focal. This new need for sensation scale encompasses two dimensions namely sensory enjoyment and sensory avoidance, which both can be administered simultaneously to reflect different facets of need for sensation. The scale is validated as part of an experimental design to examine how different environments and levels of sensory stimulation impact consumers. Findings show that high intensity of sensation environments lower the consumer\u27s ability to accurately complete perceptual and cognitive tasks. However, these high intensity surroundings also elevate hedonic value leading to a more positive and value-added consumption experience. With regard to need for sensation, high need for sensation individuals express higher levels of hedonic value, satisfaction, and positive affect in stimulating environments; thus, confirming the validity of the new scale to detect individual differences across consumers. Results further affirm that while high need for sensation individuals gain more pleasure from a highly sensory stimulation experience; their performance is not negatively impacted. Overall, this research integrates atmospherics, services, and sensory marketing research to advance the marketing discipline. Key findings provide a starting point for an extensive stream of research focusing on sensory value-added consumption experiences

The Impact Of Cyberloafing And Mindfulness On Employee Burnout

The current study examined two behaviors that are becoming increasing more popular: cyberloafing and mindfulness meditation through a coping lens. Cyberloafing, or personal internet usage, is a type of disengagement coping whereas mindfulness is proposed to be a type of engagement coping. Using a longitudinal data collection method, data was collected at three time points to investigate the mediational role of both cyberloafing and mindfulness on the role overload-work burnout relationship. A cross-lagged model, a supplemental path analysis model, and additional analyses were conducted to analyze the relationship between role overload, coping behaviors, and work burnout. The overall hypotheses were not supported by a cross-lagged model; however, supplemental analyses provided some support for the hypotheses. There was some evidence that mindfulness partially mediates the relationship between role overload and work burnout. Limitations, analysis decisions, and future directions are discussed

Negativity Bias in Investors’ Reactions to Board of Directors’ Risk Oversight Disclosure

This study investigates how disclosure of the board of directors’ leadership and role in risk oversight (BODs oversight disclosure) influences investors’ judgments when information on risk exposures is disclosed. The theoretical lens through which we examine this issue involves negativity bias. Sixty-two stock market investors who engage in the evaluation and/or investment of stocks on a regular or professional basis participated in our study. Our results reveal that the addition of BODs oversight disclosure (positive information) does not carry significant weight on investor judgments (i.e., attractiveness and investment) when financial statement disclosures indicate a high level of operational and financial risk exposures (negative information). In contrast, under the condition of a low level of risk exposures, BODs oversight disclosure causes investors to assess higher risk in terms of worry, catastrophic potentials and unfamiliarity about risk information and, in turn, make less favorable investor judgments. Our findings add to the literature on negativity bias and contribute to the debate on the usefulness of disclosures about risk

AWARENESS, ACCEPTANCE, AND EQUANIMITY: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN TRAIT MINDFULNESS, STRESS, AND BLOOD PRESSURE

Hypertension (HTN) is associated with stress and unhealthy emotion regulation. Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) are said to help address stress-related diseases like cardiovascular disease by impacting stress and emotion regulation, yet studies of MBIs on cardiovascular health show inconsistent findings. Limited research has examined the basic links between trait mindfulness and cardiovascular health, leaving the active components of MBIs in this context unclear. Therefore, the current study examined the relationship between trait mindfulness and blood pressure (BP) in individuals with pre-hypertension (pre-HTN). Latent variables representing two conceptualizations of trait mindfulness -Monitor and Accept Theory (MAT) and Equanimity- were calculated using facets of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), and their relationships with BP tested (n=296) using structural equation modeling and moderated multiple regression. Higher equanimity associated with higher BP at a level not reaching clinical relevance, and this relationship was not moderated by stress or mediated by rumination or suppression. Trait mindfulness as described in MAT did not predict lower SBP or DBP. Validity concerns regarding the FFMQ, and the state of the mindfulness research field are discussed in relation to the current study results. Subsequent recommendations for improving trait mindfulness measurement are described