A Comparative Study on Payment Schemes For Watershed Services in New York City and Beijing

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), also known as Payment for Environmental Services, has become an increasingly popular economic approach to address environmental problems. The variety of ecosystem services, which are “components of nature, directly enjoyed, consumed or used to yield human well-being”, has rendered diversified PES programs targeting different ecological services. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), watershed is among the services that are currently receiving most funds and interest worldwide. This article compares two distinctive watershed PES programs, namely the New York City Watershed Program and Beijing Watershed Program in China, and tries to discuss their different levels of success

Effect of Complex Road Networks on Intensive Land Use in China’s Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Urban Agglomeration

Coupled with rapid urbanization and urban expansion, the spatial relationship between transportation development and land use has gained growing interest among researchers and policy makers. In this paper, a complex network model and land use intensity assessment were integrated into a spatial econometric model to explore the spatial spillover effect of the road network on intensive land use patterns in China’s Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) urban agglomeration. First, population density, point of interest (POI) density, and aggregation index were selected to measure land use intensity from social, physical, and ecological aspects. Then, the indicator of average degree (i.e., connections between counties) was used to measure the characteristics of the road network. Under the hypothesis that the road network functions in shaping land use patterns, a spatial econometric model with the road network embedded spatial weight matrix was established. Our results revealed that, while the land use intensity in the BTH urban agglomeration increased from 2010 to 2015, the road network became increasingly complex with greater spatial heterogeneity. The spatial lag coefficients of land use intensity were positively significant in both years and showed a declining trend. The spatially lagged effects of sector structure, fixed asset investment, and consumption were also significant in most of our spatial econometric models, and their contributions to the total spillover effect increased from 2010 to 2015. This study contributes to the literature by providing an innovative quantitative method to analyze the spatial spillover effect of the road network on intensive land use. We suggest that the spatial spillover effect of the road network could be strengthened in the urban–rural interface areas by improving accessibility and promoting population, resource, and technology flows

Mapping the Distribution of Water Resource Security in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Region at the County Level under a Changing Context

The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (Jingjinji) region is the most densely populated region in China and suffers from severe water resource shortage, with considerable water-related issues emerging under a changing context such as construction of water diversion projects (WDP), regional synergistic development, and climate change. To this end, this paper develops a framework to examine the water resource security for 200 counties in the Jingjinji region under these changes. Thus, county-level water resource security is assessed in terms of the long-term annual mean and selected typical years (i.e., dry, normal, and wet years), with and without the WDP, and under the current and projected future (i.e., regional synergistic development and climate change). The outcomes of such scenarios are assessed based on two water-crowding indicators, two use-to-availability indicators, and one composite indicator. Results indicate first that the water resources are distributed unevenly, relatively more abundant in the northeastern counties and extremely limited in the other counties. The water resources are very limited at the regional level, with the water availability per capita and per unit gross domestic product (GDP) being only 279/290 m3 and 46/18 m3 in the current and projected future scenarios, respectively, even when considering the WDP. Second, the population carrying capacity is currently the dominant influence, while economic development will be the controlling factor in the future for most middle and southern counties. This suggests that significant improvement in water-saving technologies, vigorous replacement of industries from high to low water consumption, as well as water from other supplies for large-scale applications are greatly needed. Third, the research identifies those counties most at risk to water scarcity and shows that most of them can be greatly relieved after supplementation by the planned WDP. Finally, more attention should be paid to the southern counties because their water resources are not only limited but also much more sensitive and vulnerable to climate change. This work should benefit water resource management and allocation decisions in the Jingjinji region, and the proposed assessment framework can be applied to other similar problems.This study is supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFC0401401) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51609256, 51609122, 51522907, 51739011, and 51569026). Partial support is also from the Young Elite Scientists Sponsorship Program by the China Association for Science and Technology (2017QNRC001

Explaining city branding practices in China’s three mega-city regions: The role of ecological modernization

As global cities, Hong Kong, Shanghai and Beijing operate in international economic networks; however, they are also each firmly embedded within a regional context and are surrounded by less populous and less internationally recognized neighbors. Together they form so-called mega-city regions referred to as the Greater Pearl River Delta, the Yangtze River Delta, and the Bohai Rim, each encompassing a dozen or so cities. In the wake of staggering economic growth and threatening pollution, these cities are compelled to respond to the challenge of ecological modernization (EM): aim for higher economic value added at lower environmental cost. Cities have particular industrial and regional profiles; consequently they follow different developmental pathways. In order to attract coveted investors, green and high-tech corporations, well-endowed residents and talented workforce, these cities engage in city branding practices. In this contribution, a typology of EM developmental pathways is presented and the 41 cities in the three Chinese mega-city regions are analyzed in terms of their respective pathways and city branding practices. We argue that different industrial and regional profiles allow for different developmental pathways making different city branding strategies likely. Most cities brand themselves in comformity with what their pathway would lead us to predict, except cities with a strongly manufacturing oriented profile; the brands of the latter type deviate markedly from their current reality. Cities adopting branding strategies that contrast sharply with their historical legacy and current profile risk promoting themselves in ways that the outside world is likely to perceive as lacking in credibility

Green innovation efficiency measurement of manufacturing industry in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region of China based on Super-EBM model and Malmquist-Luenberger index

Promoting sustainable development in manufacturing is a paramount goal, with a focus on advancing green innovation. This study constructs a system for evaluating green innovation efficiency and employs the Super-EBM model, incorporating unexpected output, to assess the efficiency of green innovation in 13 cities across the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region from 2011 to 2020. The study further conducts dynamic analysis using the Malmquist-Luenberger index. Results reveal that, statically, the overall green innovation efficiency in the manufacturing industry of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region is inefficient. There exists a considerable gap in green innovation efficiency among Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei, with Beijing and Tianjin demonstrating superior performance compared to Hebei. Substantial variations exist in the green innovation efficiency of manufacturing across different cities in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region. Only Beijing, Qinhuangdao, and Baoding achieve DEA-effective green innovation efficiency in the manufacturing industry, while the other cities do not. Dynamically, the green innovation efficiency of the manufacturing industry in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region is on the rise. There is a varying degree of improvement in green innovation efficiency in Beijing, Tianjin, and Hebei, with Hebei showing the highest improvement, Tianjin ranking second, and Beijing having the least improvement. With the exception of Langfang and Hengshui, the green innovation efficiency in the manufacturing industry is improving in most cities in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, with Hebei witnessing the most significant improvement. This study aims to integrate “environmental pollution” into the evaluation index system for green innovation efficiency. It assesses green innovation efficiency in the manufacturing industry of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, considering both static and dynamic perspectives. This clarification offers insights into the level of green innovation, contributing valuable information for the advancement of high-quality development in the regional manufacturing industry

Modelling land system evolution and dynamics of terrestrial carbon stocks in the Luanhe River Basin, China: a scenario analysis of trade-offs and synergies between Sustainable Development Goals

A more holistic understanding of land use and land cover (LULC) will help minimise trade-offs and maximise synergies, and lead to improved future land use management strategies for the attainment of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, current assessments of future LULC changes rarely focus on the multiple demands for goods and services, which are related to the synergies and trade-offs between SDGs and their targets. In this study, the land system (combinations of land cover and land use intensity) evolution trajectories of the Luanhe River Basin (LRB), China, and major challenges that the LRB may face in 2030, were explored by applying the CLUMondo and InVEST models. The results indicate that the LRB is likely to experience agricultural intensification and urban growth under all four scenarios that were explored. The cropland intensity and the urban growth rate were much higher under the historical trend (Trend) scenario compared to those with more planning interventions (Expansion, Sustainability, and Conservation scenarios). Unless the forest area and biodiversity conservation targets are implemented (Conservation scenario), the forest areas are projected to decrease by 2030. The results indicate that water scarcity in the LRB is likely to increase under all scenarios, and the carbon storage will increase under the Conservation scenario but decrease under all other scenarios by 2030. Our methodological framework and findings can guide regional sustainable development in the LRB and other large river basins in China, and will be valuable for policy and planning purposes to the pursuance of SDGs at the sub-national scale

Modelling land system evolution and dynamics of terrestrial carbon stocks in the Luanhe River Basin, China: a scenario analysis of trade-offs and synergies between sustainable development goals

A more holistic understanding of land use and land cover (LULC) will help minimise trade-offs and maximise synergies, and lead to improved future land use management strategies for the attainment of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, current assessments of future LULC changes rarely focus on the multiple demands for goods and services, which are related to the synergies and trade-offs between SDGs and their targets. In this study, the land system (combinations of land cover and land use intensity) evolution trajectories of the Luanhe River Basin (LRB), China, and major challenges that the LRB may face in 2030, were explored by applying the CLUMondo and InVEST models. The results indicate that the LRB is likely to experience agricultural intensification and urban growth under all four scenarios that were explored. The cropland intensity and the urban growth rate were much higher under the historical trend (Trend) scenario compared to those with more planning interventions (Expansion, Sustainability, and Conservation scenarios). Unless the forest area and biodiversity conservation targets are implemented (Conservation scenario), the forest areas are projected to decrease by 2030. The results indicate that water scarcity in the LRB is likely to increase under all scenarios, and the carbon storage will increase under the Conservation scenario but decrease under all other scenarios by 2030. Our methodological framework and findings can guide regional sustainable development in the LRB and other large river basins in China, and will be valuable for policy and planning purposes to the pursuance of SDGs at the sub-national scale

Mitigation of China’s water scarcity and water pollution by adjusting its economy and development patterns

Water scarcity and water pollution have constituted great challenges to the world, especially Republic of China (referred as China throughout the whole thesis for simplification), a country constrained by its inadequate water endowment, uneven water distribution, and degraded water quality. Yet current water engineering projects and stringent water regulations are unable to throughout address its water dilemmas, as the interrelationship between water status and economy and development patterns, and the consideration of water footprint or virtual water embodied in commercial trade and supply chains are often neglected when making policies. Hence, this thesis proposes a potential route to alleviate China’s water scarcity and water pollution through the adjustment of its economy and development patterns with the ultimate goal of achieving China’s water sustainability without stunting its economy and development. This thesis first explicitly describes the main methods it applies to account China’s water scarcity and water pollution across 42 economic sectors at the national and the city levels from production and consumption perspectives, which are the compilation of China’s water datasets and the application of Environmentally Extended Input-Output Analysis (EEIOA). Regarding water datasets, four indicators are chosen for compilation, including water withdrawal, water use, ammonia nitrogen (NH4+) discharge, and COD discharge. And the application of EEIOA includes Single Regional Environmentally Extended Input-Output Analysis (SREEIOA) and Multi-Regional Environmentally Extended Input-Output Analysis (MREEIOA). This thesis then conducts four case studies to illustrate how China’s water scarcity and water pollution has been negatively and positively affected by its economy and development patterns in small and large scales respectively, and to suggest potential approaches to mitigating China’s water scarcity and water pollution by adjusting its economy and development patterns. Case Study 1 explores the water utilisation in five energy sectors of cities in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region, and discusses how synergistic development of the region could facilitate the water utilisation of energy sectors in this region. Water sits at the nexus of energy, and great water supply could guarantee a diverse supply of reliable, affordable and sustainable energy. This case study calculates the 2012 water withdrawn directly for five energy sectors, and total water withdrawal embodied in these energy supply chains by applying city-level SREEIOA. The results suggest that: First, synergistic development could greatly improve water utilisation in electricity in the BTH region. Electricity accounted for 69% (669 Mts/965 Mts) and 72% (8857 Mts/12318 Mts) of the total direct and embodied water withdrawal in five energy sectors respectively, however, this energy sector had low water efficiency, which could be improved by forming a complete supply chain in the region. Second, synergistic development enables each city to optimise its advantageous energy sectors, which promotes the overall water utilisation in the BTH region, such as cities dominated by energy resources excavation (Tangshan and Handan), energy processing (Beijing and Tianjin), or both (Cangzhou). Third, synergistic development encourages well-developed cities to provide technological guidance to the rest of cities in the BTH region. Of all the cities in the BTH region, Beijing and Tianjin had the largest direct (203 million tonnes (Mts) and 148 Mts) and embodied (6690 Mts and 1476 Mts) water withdrawals in energy sectors and were ranked top in water efficiency (4 x 10-4 tonne/CNY and 3 x 10-4 tonne/CNY). Case Study 2 assesses the overall reduction of anthropogenic NH4+ discharge attributed by economic progress and development in the Pearl River Basin (PRB). NH4+ is a critical pollutant that contributes to eutrophication, and thus research on approaches that trigger changes of NH4+ discharge in the PRB can hugely improve the offshore environment. In this case study, 2011 and 2017 NH4+ discharge data across industries and economic sectors were compiled and analysed for cities in the PRB. According to the results: first, more attention was paid on NH4 + discharge reduction in household, agriculture and industry. The overall reduction of NH4 + discharge in the PRB was mainly attributed by household (149.91-86.77 thousand tonnes (Kts)), agriculture (66.55-36.35 Kts) and industry (26.84-15.87 Kts). Second, the Pearl River Delta (PRD) was identified as a critical area in the PRB for the overall NH4+ discharge reduction due to its economic dynamics and dense population. With only 8 cities, the PRD accounted for approximately 34% (118.45 Kts/353.23 Kts in 2011; 74.76 Kts/217.86 Kts in 2017) of the total reduction of NH4+ discharge in the PRB. Third, awakening civic awareness was the determinant of the reduction of NH4+ discharge in household in the PRB as almost all the cities had declined NH4+ discharge in household but increased population. Fourth, economic structure transformation and technological improvement also promoted the NH4 + discharge reduction of economic sectors (except household). The most significant decreases in NH4 + discharge could be seen in cities or their economic sectors with the sharpest decline of NH4 + intensities, such as Ganzhou’s and Foshan’s nonferrous melting, Nanning’s chemical product, Foshan’s and Shenzhen’s textile, and Laibin’s agricultural product. Fifth, however, more focuses should be further put on cities with increased anthropogenic NH4+ discharge. Case Study 3 examines the imbalance between China’s water stress and its virtual water flows embodied in economic trade in China’s 313 cities, and points out the urgent need to introduce economic instruments to alleviate the water imbalance. City, as the basic administrative unit, undertakes great responsibilities for obtaining, distributing, and managing its water resources in the supply chain (Zheng et al., 2019). Therefore, this case study accounts China’s city-level virtual water flows across economic sectors for the first time by applying the 2015 MREEIOA. The main findings include: First, it is necessary to introduce economic instruments to ease the water stress of China’s regions which were mainly responsible for water export in agriculture and industry. They were Northeast and Northwest (agriculture), East China and Central China (industry). Second, economic instruments need to be introduced to support major water exporters as they tended to suffer from more severe water stress but gained less economic profits. It was seen that water imported by certain cities required rallying support of its surrounding or even cities, especially major water exporters with the most enormous volumes of water outflows but suffered from severe water stress. And these water exporters were often oriented by low value-added but highly water-intensive economic sector agriculture. Third, there were also three types of cities or economic sectors that required the aid of economic instruments to mitigate their water stress: (1) cities that were either highly self-dependent or heavily dependent on the other cities’ water supply as they were more likely to confront potential water vulnerability (such as Urumqi, Wuhan, Shanghai); (2) cities had great water investment but gained low economic returns so that their economic carrying capacity were rather low, such as Urumqi. (3) cities/economic sectors that undertook great responsibilities for water export but the responsibilities were in fact beyond their capabilities, such as Maanshan’s chemical and metal&nonmetal and Daqing’s mining. Case Study 4 uncovers the positive impacts brought by the shifts in economy and development patterns on national water management. Over the past decades, China has undergone profound social and economic transitions, which evokes urgent needs to quantitively analyse its influences on China’s water scarcity and water pollution in the supply chain. Hence, in this case study, national data of water use and chemical oxygen demand (COD) discharge were compiled and then applied in EEIOA to detect the dynamics of China’s direct and embodied water across individual economic sectors from 2010 to 2015. It is found that: First, domestic energy policy and economic stimulus optimised the water use and reduced water pollution in key producer (electricity) and consumer (construction) sectors in the virtual water supply chains. Electricity’s direct water use declined due to the transition of China’s energy structure from coal to renewable energy. Construction’s embodied water use and COD discharge skyrocketed (65-92 Bts) as infrastructure construction and real estate could boost the national economy in the post-financial crisis era (Giang & Sui Pheng, 2011). Second, urbanisation alleviated China’s water crisis to some extent. Urban consumption occupied the largest percentages (over 30%) of embodied water use and COD discharge, but embodied water intensities in urban consumption were far lower than those in rural consumption. Third, the ‘new normal’ phase witnessed the optimisation of China’s economic/industrial structures and this improved China’s water status. Embodied water use in light-manufacturing and tertiary sectors increased while that in heavy-manufacturing sectors (except chemicals and transport equipment) dropped. Fourth, the changes in international situation also provided China some opportunities to optimise its water structure. In the post-financial crisis era, China’s water use (116-80 billion tonnes (Bts)) and COD discharge (3.95-2.22 Mts) embodied in export tremendously decreased while its total export values (11-25 trillion Chinese Yuan (CNY)) doubled. Under globalisation and the rise of South-South trade, China started to relocate water use and COD discharge embodied in production activities for low-end sectors, such as textile, to other developing countries, such as textile. This thesis then summarises the above-mentioned findings obtained from all the case studies. It can be concluded that China’s economy and development patterns exert the following negative effects on its water scarcity and water pollution: (1) Economic disparities and development gaps could increase water inequality; (2) Unclear division of labour and unoptimised industrial structure could easily lead to low water efficiency, especially in water-intensive industries/economic sectors; (3) Economic trade without much consideration of virtual water embodied in supply chains could trigger imbalance between water stress, virtual water supply. On the bright side, China’s economy and development patterns also bring the positive effects to its water scarcity and water pollution in the following aspects: (1) The optimisation of economic structure and the fulfillment of industrial transformation could greatly ease water scarcity and water pollution; (2) Economic and social development could also attribute to the mitigation of water scarcity and water pollution. Based on these effects, this thesis then proposes potential approaches to alleviating China’s water scarcity and water pollution by adjusting its economy and development patterns. These measures include: (1) strengthening regional cooperation and encouraging synergistic development; (2) proactively reacting to changes in international situation and making corresponding domestic policy; (3) re-scheduling supply chains and economic trade patterns by introducing the concept of water footprint. To support these measures, this thesis also puts forward some policy recommendations, which include: (1) adjusting water pricing and appropriating water subsidy in less-developed administrative units or in water-intensive /water-polluted industries or economic sectors; (2) introducing water rights trade; (3) adhering to the principles of development economics and circular economy with the ultimate goal of achieving China’s water sustainability. This thesis makes great contributions to the existing academic field. Theoretically, this thesis makes a breakthrough by conducting China’s city-level water footprint research with the consideration of both water quantity and water quality indicators. This bridges the research gap about limited city-level water footprint studies/water-energy nexus in water footprint studies, and limited water footprint studies related to water quality in the current research filed. This thesis also fills the absence of the existing literature by tracing water pollutants triggered by specific anthropogenic activities of all the cities within a river basin. Methodologically, this thesis compiles a water withdrawal dataset for China’s 313 cities and a NH4+ discharge dataset for the PRB’s cities for the very first time. It also applies city-level multi-regional environmentally extended input-output table in China’s water footprint study for the very first time. From the empirical and policy-related perspectives, this thesis chooses representative regions or cities as case studies so that empirical results and policy recommendations could be partly mirrored in other regions or cities at similar development stages

Renewable hydrogen supply chains: A planning matrix and an agenda for future research

Worldwide, energy systems are experiencing a transition to more sustainable systems. According to the Hydrogen Roadmap Europe (FCH EU, 2019), hydrogen will play an important role in future energy systems due to its ability to support sustainability goals and will account for approximately 13% of the total energy mix in the coming future. Correct hydrogen supply chain (HSC) planning is therefore vital to enable a sustainable transition, in particular when hydrogen is produced by water electrolysis using electricity from renewable sources (renewable hydrogen). However, due to the operational characteristics of the renewable HSC, its planning is complicated. Renewable hydrogen supply can be diverse: Hydrogen can be produced de-centrally with renewables, such as wind and solar energy, or centrally by using electricity generated from a hydro power plant with a large volume. Similarly, demand for hydrogen can also be diverse, with many new applications, such as fuels for fuel cell electrical vehicles and electricity generation, feedstocks in industrial processes, and heating for buildings. The HSC consists of various stages (production, storage, distribution, and applications) in different forms, with strong interdependencies, which further increase HSC complexity. Finally, planning of an HSC depends on the status of hydrogen adoption and market development, and on how mature technologies are, and both factors are characterised by high uncertainties. Directly adapting the traditional approaches of supply chain (SC) planning for HSCs is insufficient. Therefore, in this study we develop a planning matrix with related planning tasks, leveraging a systematic literature review to cope with the characteristics of HSCs. We focus only on renewable hydrogen due to its relevance to the future low-carbon economy. Furthermore, we outline an agenda for future research, from the supply chain management perspective, in order to support renewable HSC development, considering the different phases of renewable HSCs adoption and market development