A mortuary approach to cultural interaction and political dynamics on LMII-IIIB Crete

This thesis analyses the published evidence for tomb burial practices on Late Bronze Age Crete, focusing on the problem of understanding the political and cultural significance of the introduction of tomb use on the island from the Late Minoan II period (c1450 BC) to the end of Late Minoan IIIB (c1200 BC). The adoption of tomb burial customs was one element within a broader cultural reorientation towards mainland Greece occurring on Crete in this period that has resulted in the common application in archaeological literature of the epithet 'Mycenaean' to the island. It also coincides with at least two horizons of political upheaval within the island, the first resulting in Knossian hegemony over much of Crete from LM II and the second in decentralisation and regionalisation in LM IIIA2. However, while mainland-derived cultural influence on Crete has frequently been observed, and the internal political changes recognised, the reasons behind these developments have never really been explored or problematised, beyond recourse to traditional models of invasion and migration. The purpose of the present thesis is to explore how the cultural and political dynamics of the island were negotiated through changing mortuary practices. The development of the mainland-inspired strategy of tomb ostentation as a medium for high status advertisement is charted from its initial introduction at Knossos to its appropriation by regional centres in LM IIIA2 and LM IIIB. It is argued that invasion or migration hypotheses are not necessary to account for the developments in tomb use in Crete, though these may have been contributory factors. Crete was participating within a broader Aegean trend of cultural 'Mycenaeanisation', though it was simultaneously deploying the burial sphere for internal political negotiations that also involved the development of a specifically Cretan mortuary vocabulary - particularly in terms of deposition methods and standards of monumentality

The Social Role of Minoan Symbols

Starting from the premise that symbols are among the most reliable and efficient representatives of a society and that, Minoan society in particular, appears as overly dependent on symbols and their ritual use for the operation of its socio-political structure, this thesis will examine the social role of six of its most emblematic symbols: the double axe, the horns of consecration, the figure-of-eight shield, the sacred knot, the triton and the shell. Based on a large amount of data and recognizing the enormous value of contextual analysis, the social role of the symbols is illustrated through the comparison of patterns of use from a number of sites in North Central and East Crete. The selection of North Central Crete and East Crete is justified by the diversity of socio-political factors offered by the two areas: North Central Crete was a geographically unified area, where the Palace Knossos, the largest and most complex palace of Minoan Crete was built, while East Crete was a geographically fragmented area with relatively isolated settlements, which developed different degrees of palatial complexity. The variation in the responses to the emergence of the palatial system in these two inherently different geographical units is here used to demonstrate the significance of the study of Minoan symbols for the understanding of past societies. The above patterns are interpreted under the scope of an interactive relation between different social groups, individuals and objects, as well as the spaces which become fields of action for the symbols. In this frame, symbols are viewed as constantly changing formations which reflect dynamic social relations

3D MODELLING AND MEDIEVAL LIGHTING RECONSTRUCTION FOR RUPESTRIAN CHURCHES

The aim of this research is to define a method, able to analyse the systems of illumination in the medieval period, through a 3D virtual model reconstruction. It specifically needs to deepen the interactions between natural and artificial illumination in confined spaces. The study describes and examines the best survey technique to obtain a 3D model reconstruction, according to the achievement of such lighting scenarios, and the most suitable tools for lighting analysis. Thus, it is possible to carry out accurate interpretations of the past starting from historical sources and scientific data about lighting. This method was validated on a case study of a rupestrian church in Matera. The rupestrian contexts are less investigated in relation to mediaeval artificial lighting even if there are recognitions and comparative studies of widespread contexts, not only in Puglia and Basilicata, but also in Mediterranean area (e.g. in Cappadocia and Cyprus) which allow identifying evidences related to artificial lighting systems. The architectural signs (hole, niches, etc.) for ancient luminaries can be studied in 3D and lighting prospective. Lastly, the virtual model of the rupestrian church was imported into an opensource visualisation software (3D Heritage Online Presenter) to be appreciable on line and to promote historical heritage knowledge

The Contribution of ‘Total Environment’ Reconstructions in Interpreting Ancient Greek Experience of Ritual Spaces

The temple of Epikourean Apollo in Bassae has long been suspected to have been constructed with astronomical considerations, aimed at influencing ancient religious experience. The study presented here involves the use of Virtual Reality software to reconstruct the temple in its original position and orientation, combined with an accurate reconstruction of the sun’s position during the Classical period. The aim is to test the hypothesis of deliberate solar considerations associated with the temple’s east entrance. The reconstruction also discusses the application of Virtual Reality Models (VRM) and their potential impact on understanding ancient spatial movement and memory, emotionality and cognition. In addition, it explores the possibility of ancient natural light manipulation in enhancing experience of religious architecture. This paper not only presents the first VRM of Apollo’s temple, but also a model with an accurate reconstruction of the sun’s position at specific moments in the year. The importance of such reconstructions in understanding religious experience is exemplified. A great deal is revealed about the proposed solar effect in relation to human observation, and the connotations of such an effect in specific religious contexts. This study could facilitate discussion on the contribution of digital technology in understanding ancient Greek ritual experience

The Hagia Triada Sarcophagus: Interconnections Between Crete and Egypt in the Late Bronze Age

The Hagia Triada Sarcophagus, a painted limestone larnax, has been an enigma in the Minoan artistic canon since the time of its discovery in 1903. It is the only larnax found to date made of limestone, and the only one to contain a series of narrative scenes of Minoan funerary rituals. Conversely, most contemporaneous Aegean larnake are decorated with randomly arranged abstract designs and figures. The late twentieth century re-excavations at the site of its discovery have, at last, allowed scholars to assign a date (1370-1320 BC) to the sarcophagus. This period coincides with the late Eighteenth Dynasty in Egypt; a time when interconnections between Crete and Egypt were extensive. This development now permits a re-examination of the artistic and technical elements on the Hagia Triada Sarcophagus that seem closely related to the Egyptian techniques used to decorate temples and tombs since the third millennium, BC

From images to signs: Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A in context

This dissertation adopts a multidisciplinary approach to investigate graphical and formal features of Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A. Drawing on theories which understand inscribed artefacts as an interplay of materials, iconography, and texts, I combine archaeological and philological considerations with statistical and experimental observations. The work is formulated on three key-questions. The first deals with the origins of Cretan Hieroglyphic. After providing a fresh view on Prepalatial seals chronology, I identify a number of forerunners of Hieroglyphic signs in iconographic motifs attested among the Prepalatial glyptic and material culture. I further identified a specific style-group, i.e., the ‘Border and Leaf Complex’, as the decisive step towards the emergence of the Hieroglyphic graphic repertoire. The second deals with the interweaving of formal, iconographical, and epigraphic features of Hieroglyphic seals with the sequences they bear and the contexts of their usage. By means of two Correspondence Analyses, I showed that the iconography on seals in some materials and shapes is closer to Cretan Hieroglyphics, than that on the other ones. Through two Social Network Analyses, I showed that Hieroglyphic impressions, especially at Knossos, follow a precise sealing pattern due to their shapes and sequences. Furthermore, prisms with a high number of inscribed faces adhere to formal features of jasper ones. Finally, through experimental engravings, I showed differences in cutting rates among materials, as well as the efficiency of abrasives and tools unearthed within the Quartier Mu. The third question concerns overlaps in chronology, findspots and signaries between Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A. I discussed all possible earliest instances of both scripts and argued for some items datable to the MM I-IIA period. I further provide an insight into the Hieroglyphic-Linear A dubitanda and criteria for their interpretation. Finally, I suggest four different patterns in the creation and diversification of the two signaries

The workshops and working areas of Minoan Crete : the evidence of the palace and town of Zakros for a comparative study

3 volsSIGLEAvailable from British Library Document Supply Centre- DSC:DX85980 / BLDSC - British Library Document Supply CentreGBUnited Kingdo

The cult of the dead in central Greece during the Mycenaean period

The aim of this thesis is to examine the evidence for the performance of a cult of the dead in LH III Greece with emphasis placed mainly on the material evidence from the typical Mycenaean tombs in the central areas of the Mycenaean dominion, viz. the Argolid, Korinthia, Attica, Boeotia and Euboea during the acme of Mycenaean civilization, that is the LH IIIA-B period. Chapter I presents the rationale and the aim of the thesis as well as the regional and chronological boundaries. Chapter II covers the theoretical background of the thesis by investigating general questions on ritual recognition in the archaeological record and on definitions of ancestor worship. A detailed presentation of the previous arguments on the Mycenaean cult of the dead is given and the 'artificial landscapes' of LH IIIB Mycenae are discussed with focus on Grave Circle A. New approaches and perspectives are proposed, namely a new definition of the term `cult of the dead' and a series of indicators of cultic activity to be applied in the study of the Mycenaean ancestor worship. Chapter III deals with funerary art and the artistic expression of Mycenaean eschatological beliefs. The Mycenaean belief in the survival of the soul and the journey of the dead to the Underworld, and the multiple function of terracotta figurines in LH III funerary agenda are assessed with this framework. The possibility of new perspectives and approaches via detailed contextual exploration of Mycenaean symbolic systems is discussed in the final part of this chapter. Chapter IV combines three broad issues, namely the location of cemeteries, tomb design and eschatological symbolism. Special reference is made to the connection between cemeteries and the religious significance of water and the rites of passage. The metaphysical symbolism of the tripartite plan of the typical Mycenaean tombs is also examined. Chapter V investigates the ritual act of attributing sacred honours and offerings to the ancestors by drawing parallels from contemporary religious observances. The first part deals with the significance of libation and sacrifice in honour of the dead. The second part explores the religious significance of secondary burial treatment and suggests that the custom signaled the starting point in Mycenaean ancestor worship. The existence of places especially designed for the performance of a cult of the dead is investigated with emphasis placed on the `Cenotaph' at Dendra. The objective of Chapter VI, which presents the conclusions of the thesis, is to place the evidence for the performance of a Mycenaean cult of the dead into a `historical' narrative and to investigate the reasons behind the establishment and practice of this cult