Late Quaternary Evolution of Western Australian Continental Shelf Sediment Systems

This thesis shows how Western Australian coast and continental shelf evolved into their present form, in response to changes in sea-level and climate, during the last Glacial Age. I have focused on four contrasting marine environments: the Kimberley coast and offshore islands, Shark Bay, the Swan River estuary and Geographe Bay. In each area, I took a multidisciplinary approach to my data collection and analysis utilising remote sensing, marine geophysics, sedimentological and geochronological methodologies

The marine geology of Mossel Bay, South Africa

Includes bibliographical references.This thesis presents work undertaken to better understand the complex evolution of the terrestrial landscape now submerged by high sea levels offshore of Mossel Bay along the South Coast of South Africa. Three marine geophysical surveys and scuba diving were used to examine evidence of past sea-level fluctuations and interpret geological deposits on the seafloor. Additional geological mapping of coastal outcrops was carried out to link land and sea features and rock samples were dated using Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL). Geophysical investigations include a regional seismic survey extending from Still Bay in the west to Buffels Bay in the east out to a maximum water depth of 110 m; a high-resolution investigation of the Mossel Bay shelf using multibeam bathymetry, side-scan sonar and sub-bottom profiling; and a shallow seismic pinger survey of Swartvlei, the most prominent coastal lake in the Wilderness Embayment. This study presents 9 discrete seismic sequences, and describes major offshore geomorphic features such as submerged sea cliffs, palaeo-coastal zones and fluvial systems. Oscillation in sea level between ca. 2.7 and 0.9 Ma likely resulted in the formation of the prominent -45 m terrace, which separates a relatively steep inner from a low-gradient mid shelf. Beach and dune deposits span from Marine Isotope Stage 15 (MIS 15) (582 ka) to Recent based on an age model that integrates OSL ages and the established eustatic sea-level record. The most prominent deposits date from the MIS 6 glacial to MIS 5 interglacial periods and include incised lowstand river channels and regressive aeolianites that extended at least 10 km inland from their associated palaeoshorelines. The MIS 5 deposits include transgressive beachrock, an extensive foreshore unit which prograded on the MIS 5e highstand, and regressive beach and dune deposits on the shelf associated with the subsequent fall in sea level. MIS 4 lowstand incised river channels were infilled with sediment truncated during rapid landward shoreface migration at the MIS 4 termination. Lowenergy, back-barrier MIS 4/3 sediments are preserved as a result of overstepping associated with meltwater pulses of the MIS 2 termination. The MIS 1 sediment wedge comprises reworked sediment and is best developed on the inner shelf. Holocene highstand sedimentation continues to prograde. Accommodation space for coastal deposits is controlled by antecedent drainage pathways and the gradient of the adjacent inner continental shelf. The geological deposits on the emergent shelf indicate a greatly expanded glacial coastal plain that potentially received more rain feeding low-gradient meandering rivers and wetland lakes. These extensive wetland environments provided a rich source of diverse food types which along with abundant marine resources on the shoreline made the Southern Coastal Plain an ideal habitat for our ancestors

Extent, timing and nature of retreat of the British-Irish Ice Sheet offshore of north-western Ireland during and following the Last Glacial Maximum

Abstract There has been a long history of research that has attempted to reconstruct the extent and dynamics of the British-Irish Ice Sheet (BIIS) during the last glacial cycle. Early reconstructions of ice extent in Ireland were based on terrestrial evidence, and advocated a relatively restricted ice sheet during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) that did not cover the whole of the island. More recent investigations from the continental shelf around Britain and Ireland reveal evidence for a much larger ice sheet, confluent with the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet in the North Sea and extending westwards onto the Atlantic continental shelf. However, offshore chronological control on the timing of ice sheet advance and retreat remain poor for many sectors of the continental shelf, particularly west and north-west of Ireland. This thesis brings together high-resolution multibeam swath bathymetry, sub-bottom proler data, and sedimentological, micropalaeontological and geochronological data, in order to reconstruct the extent, timing and dynamics of the last ice sheet in Donegal Bay and the adjoining north-western Irish continental shelf. This area is of interest due to its location adjacent to the North Atlantic and the Gulf Stream branch of the thermohaline circulation, making this sector of the BIIS sensitive to external forcing. The new data in this thesis show evidence for the extension of a grounded ice sheet to the shelf edge at or shortly after 26.3 cal ka BP, and thus during the LGM. Foraminiferal assemblages and lithofacies show that subsequent retreat took place in a glacimarine environment, and acoustic stratigraphic data show that the retreat was characterised by several still stands and re-advances, creating a series of arcuate moraines across the shelf. Chronological data constrain initial retreat from the shelf edge to before 24.8 cal ka BP, with formation of a large moraine at the mouth of Donegal Bay dated to between 20.2 and 17.9 cal ka BP. The results and interpretations presented in this thesis thereby offers a new interpretation of the extent, timing and nature of the north-western sector of the BIIS, offshore of Donegal Bay and across the adjacent continental shelf, during the LGM and the subsequent deglaciation

Depositional and erosional signatures in sedimentary successions on the continental slope and rise off Prydz Bay, East Antarctica– implications for Pliocene paleoclimate

The Prydz Bay region of Antarctica is the immediate recipient of ice and sediments transported by the Lambert Glacier, the single largest outflow from the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. The continental slope and rise provide records covering multiple glacial cycles and containing paleoclimatic information. Marine geological and geophysical data collected from the continental shelf and adjacent slope of Prydz Bay, Antarctica, including seismic reflection data, bathymetry, and core records from ODP drilling sites, reveal the history of glacial sediment transport and deposition since the early Pliocene times. Seismic facies are interpreted in terms of episodes of slope progradation, contourite, turbidite, trough-mouth fan, and mass transport deposition. Two seismic units with estimated age of early to late Pliocene and late Pliocene to recent have been analyzed in detail for the area immediately offshore the Lambert Glacier and Prydz Bay and the adjacent Mac. Robertson margin. The upper slope is dominated by episodic mass transport deposits, many of which accumulated to form a trough mouth fan since Early Pliocene times. The trough mouth fan contrasts with the adjacent steep (4-6 degrees) continental slope of the Mac. Robertson margin, where glacigenic sediments have been transported down slope as high-velocity turbidity currents via submarine channels. The distal region exhibits evidence for contrasting effects of high-energy, traction-dominated versus lower-energy, fallout-dominated suspension flows. The counter-clockwise Coriolis force modifies the erosion and deposition patterns of turbidity currents creating an asymmetric channel-levee architecture. Since the early Pliocene, turbidite sedimentation surpassed the amount of sediment reworked and transported by westward-flowing contour currents along the base of slope. On the continental rise, contourites and sediment waves were deposited in response to enhanced bottom-water formation, which is consistent with climatic cooling since late Pliocene times. This study, based on existing seismic reflection and ODP data, highlights the need for a future scientific ocean drilling proposal on the Prydz Bay continental slope and rise in order to more accurately determine the timing of the important events that have influenced the evolution of this margin

Benthic habitat mapping in coastal waters of south–east Australia

The Victorian Marine Mapping Project will improve knowledge on the location, spatial distribution, condition and extent of marine habitats and associated biodiversity in Victorian State waters. This information will guide informed decision making, enable priority setting, and assist in targeted natural resource management planning. This project entails benthic habitat mapping over 500 square kilometers of Victorian State waters using multibeam sonar, towed video and image classification techniques. Information collected includes seafloor topography, seafloor softness and hardness (reflectivity), and information on geology and benthic flora and fauna assemblages collectively comprising habitat. Computerized semi-automated classification techniques are also being developed to provide a cost effective approach to rapid mapping and assessment of coastal habitats.Habitat mapping is important for understanding and communicating the distribution of natural values within the marine environment. The coastal fringe of Victoria encompasses a rich and diverse ecosystem representative of coastal waters of South-east Australia. To date, extensive knowledge of these systems is limited due to the lack of available data. Knowledge of the distribution and extent of habitat is required to target management activities most effectively, and provide the basis to monitor and report on their status in the future.<br /

Geomorphic and shallow-acoustic investigation of an Antarctic Peninsula fjord system using high-resolution ROV and shipboard geophysical observations: Ice dynamics and behaviour since the Last Glacial Maximum

© 2016 Detailed bathymetric and sub-bottom acoustic observations in Bourgeois Fjord (Marguerite Bay, Antarctic Peninsula) provide evidence on sedimentary processes and glacier dynamics during the last glacial cycle. Submarine landforms observed in the 50 km-long fjord, from the margins of modern tidewater glaciers to the now ice-distal Marguerite Bay, are described and interpreted. The landforms are grouped into four morpho-sedimentary systems: (i) glacial advance and full-glacial; (ii) subglacial and ice-marginal meltwater; (iii) glacial retreat and neoglaciation; and (iv) Holocene mass-wasting. These morpho-sedimentary systems have been integrated with morphological studies of the Marguerite Bay continental shelf and analysed in terms of the specific sedimentary processes and/or stages of the glacial cycle. They demonstrate the action of an ice-sheet outlet glacier that produced drumlins and crag-and-tail features in the main and outer fjord. Meltwater processes eroded bedrock channels and ponds infilled by fine-grained sediments. Following the last deglaciation of the fjord at about 9000 yr BP, subsequent Holocene neoglacial activity involved minor readvances of a tidewater glacier terminus in Blind Bay. Recent stillstands and/or minor readvances are inferred from the presence of a major transverse moraine that indicates grounded ice stabilization, probably during the Little Ice Age, and a series of smaller landforms that reveal intermittent minor readvances. Mass-wasting processes also affected the walls of the fjord and produced scars and fan-shaped deposits during the Holocene. Glacier-terminus changes during the last six decades, derived from satellite images and aerial photographs, reveal variable behaviour of adjacent tidewater glaciers. The smaller glaciers show the most marked recent retreat, influenced by regional physiography and catchment-area size

Climatically controlled sedimentary processes on continental shelves

Continental shelves with their large-scale depositional and erosional sedimentary structures are governed by shelf physiography, hydrodynamic regime, sediment flux, and climate-driven eustatic changes. The main aim is to investigate paleo-environmental organizations recorded in elongated depressions and confined depocenters in SE North Sea and NW Barents Sea, both of which were affected by the Eurasian Ice-Sheet during late Weichselian. Analysis of sediment echo-sounder and multichannel seismic data along with the sedimentological sampling enabled the identification of morphology and infill of Elbe Paleovalley (EPV), and external and internal geometry of Kveithola Drift (KD) in detail. Braided style paleodrainage was established at the base of EPV in periglacial environment. With Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene sea level rise, successive depocenters within EPV reflect the evolving hydrodynamic regime in tide- and wave-dominated environment until present. Moving towards high-latitudes, morphological and internal characteristics of KD suggest a bottom current flowing inside the trough. The formation of KD by Brine-enriched shelf water during winter season indicates the presence of coastal polynyas and increased storminess

Configuration of the Pleistocene Surface Beneath Cat Island, Mississippi and Implications for Barrier Island Formation and Evolution

The mechanism of Holocene barrier formation aids in determining island geomorphologic responses to modifying climatic processes of the surrounding environment. The geometry and composition of local antecedent topography plays a role in barrier formation by providing an elevated base, nucleus for sedimentation and local sediment supply. Investigation of barriers\u27 subsurface geology provides insight into island formation and evolution. High-resolution shallow seismic data acquired in the island\u27s nearshore zone and interior canals, correlated with existing drillcore data, reveal that Cat Island, MS is situated over an Oxygen Isotope Stage 3 Phase 3 paleochannel located between two topographic high-grounds of the Pleistocene surface. Beach ridge strandplain sets on Cat Island provide additional evidence supporting the island\u27s formation over a relict depocenter. A new, 4-stage model for Cat Island development and evolution incorporating the influence of pre-existing topographic high-grounds and abundant local sediment supply provided by a backfilling fluvial channel is presented here

Cold-water coral reef frameworks, megafaunal communities and evidence for coral carbonate mounds on the Hatton Bank, north east Atlantic

Offshore banks and seamounts sustain diverse megafaunal communities, including framework reefs formed by cold-water corals. Few studies have quantified environmental effects on the alpha or beta diversity of these communities. We adopted an interdisciplinary approach that used historical geophysical data to identify topographic highs on Hatton Bank, which were surveyed visually. The resulting photographic data were used to examine relationships between megafaunal communities and macrohabitat, the latter defined into six categories (mud, sand, cobbles, coral rubble, coral framework, rock). The survey stations revealed considerable small-scale variability in macrohabitat from exposed Late Palaeocene lava flows to quiescent muddy habitats and coral-built carbonate mounds. The first reported evidence for coral carbonate mound development in UK waters is presented, which was most pronounced near present-day or former sites of topographic change, suggesting that local current acceleration favoured coral framework growth and mound initiation. Alpha diversity varied significantly across macrohabitats, but not between rock and coral rubble, or between smaller grain sized categories of cobbles, sand and mud. Community composition differed between most macrohabitats, and variation in beta diversity across Hatton Bank was largely explained by fine-scale substratum. Certain megafauna were clearly associated with particular macrohabitats, with stylasterid corals notably associated with cobble and rock habitats and coral habitats characterized by a diverse community of suspension-feeders. The visual surveys also produced novel images of deep-water megafauna including a new photographic record of the gorgonian coral Paragorgia arborea, a species not previously reported from Rockall Plateau. Further interdisciplinary studies are needed to interpret beta diversity across these and other environmental gradients on Hatton Bank. It is clear that efforts are also needed to improve our understanding of the genetic connectivity and biogeography of vulnerable deep-water ecosystems and to develop predictive models of their occurrence that can help inform future conservation measures

Lateral shear-moraines and lateral marginal-moraines of palaeo-ice streams

An understanding of the nature of sedimentation at ice-stream lateral margins is important in reconstructing the dynamics of former ice sheets and modelling the mechanisms by which sediment is transported beneath contemporary ice streams. Theories of the formation of ice-stream lateral moraines (ISLMs) have hitherto been based on a relatively limited number of terrestrial and marine examples. Here, an inventory of ISLMs is compiled from available studies, together with independent analysis of seismic-reflection and bathymetric datasets. The locations and dimensions of 70 ISLMs, alongside a synthesis of their key architectural and geomorphic characteristics, are presented. Two different types of ISLMs are identified. Type 1 ISLMs are up to 3.5 km wide and 60 m thick. They maintain a constant width, thickness and cross-sectional shape along their length. Type 1 ISLMs are interpreted and referred to as ice-stream $\textit{lateral shear-moraines}$ that form subglacially in the shear zone between ice streams and slower-flowing regions of an ice sheet. In contrast, Type 2 ISLMs are up to 50 km wide and 300 m thick. They are only identified close to the shelf break in the marine environment. Type 2 ISLMs exhibit an increase in width and thickness along their length and their distal slopes become steeper in a seaward direction. They contain internal dipping reflections that indicate sediment progradation away from the former ice stream. Type 2 ISLMs are interpreted and referred to as ice-stream $\textit{lateral marginal-moraines}$ that were formed at the lateral boundary between ice streams and seafloor terrain that was free of grounded ice. We suggest that, using bathymetric images and acoustic profiles, it is possible to differentiate between ice-stream lateral shear-moraines and lateral marginal-moraines in the geological record. This distinction is important for understanding the mechanisms of sediment transfer beneath ice streams and for making inferences about the conditions that existed beyond the lateral ice-stream margin at the time of lateral-moraine formation: slow-moving ice beyond lateral shear-moraines, and ocean water rather than ice beyond lateral marginal-moraines.Newnham College, Cambridge (Junior Research Fellowship)This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from Elsevier via http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.08.02