If you know what I mean:Agent-based models for understanding the function of higher-order theory of mind

In everyday life, people often reason about the goals, beliefs, and intentions of others.¬ When you read a book, for example, you make use of this so-called theory of mind to identify with the protagonist, and understand that this person may have goals that are different from your own. People can even take this ability a step further. For example, if Merkel believes that Tsipras believes that Merkel wants to prevent a Grexit, Merkel is using second-order theory of mind by reasoning about the way Tsipras makes use of theory of mind. In this thesis, we use computer models to investigate possible explanations for the origins of human theory of mind reasoning. We simulate interactions between artificial computer players that reason at different levels of theory of mind. This way, we determine in what situations it helps to reason about the goals and beliefs of others. It turns out that human-like theory of mind is useful across different kinds of situations. Theory of mind can help someone to outsmart his competitors, but also to reach a cooperative solution more quickly. In situations where competition and cooperation become mixed, such as in negotiations, it is especially useful to think about the goals of others, as well as about what others know about your goals. Because it is so useful across many different settings, it seems that theory of mind is an ability that allows people to live in a complex world, where interactions are sometimes cooperative, sometimes competitive, and sometimes a mixture of the two

On Commitments

In standard interest-based negotiations or mediations, commitments are the final stage of a process in which negotiators manage both substantive issues and relational concerns while intentionally dismantling unproductive positions so that the parties may explore the integrative potential of identifying underlying interests, and then generating value-creating options to satisfy those interests. Put another way, interest-based processes transform some number of party interests into action items, deliverables, contract provisions, memorandums of understanding, preambles, press releases, promises, declarations of intention; that is, interests become commitments. And often the opposite is true: commitments can become interests, insofar as they are constitutive elements (explicit or not) in future negotiations and decisions

Using Cognitive Agents to Train Negotiation Skills

Training negotiation is difficult because it is a complex, dynamic activity that involves multiple parties. It is often not clear how to create situations in which students can practice negotiation or how to measure students' progress. Some have begun to address these issues by creating artificial software agents with which students can train. These agents have the advantage that they can be “reset,” and played against multiple times. This allows students to learn from their mistakes and try different strategies. However, these agents are often based on normative theories of how negotiators should conduct themselves, not necessarily how people actually behave in negotiations. Here, we take a step toward addressing this gap by developing an agent grounded in a cognitive architecture, ACT-R. This agent contains a model of theory-of-mind, the ability of humans to reason about the mental states of others. It uses this model to try to infer the strategy of the opponent and respond accordingly. In a series of experiments, we show that this agent replicates some aspects of human performance, is plausible to human negotiators, and can lead to learning gains in a small-scale negotiation task

Proceedings of RSEEM 2006 : 13th Research Symposium on Emerging Electronic Markets

Electronic markets have been a prominent topic of research for the past decade. Moreover, we have seen the rise but also the disappearance of many electronic marketplaces in practice. Today, electronic markets are a firm component of inter-organisational exchanges and can be observed in many branches. The Research Symposium on Emerging Electronic Markets is an annual conference bringing together researchers working on various topics concerning electronic markets in research and practice. The focus theme of the13th Research Symposium on Emerging Electronic Markets (RSEEM 2006) was ?Evolution in Electronic Markets?. Looking back at more than 10 years of research activities in electronic markets, the evolution can be well observed. While electronic commerce activities were based largely on catalogue-based shopping, there are now many examples that go beyond pure catalogues. For example, dynamic and flexible electronic transactions such as electronic negotiations and electronic auctions are enabled. Negotiations and auctions are the basis for inter-organisational trade exchanges about services as well as products. Mass customisation opens up new opportunities for electronic markets. Multichannel electronic commerce represents today?s various requirements posed on information and communication technology as well as on organisational structures. In recent years, service-oriented architectures of electronic markets have enabled ICT infrastructures for supporting flexible e-commerce and e-market solutions. RSEEM 2006 was held at the University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany in September 2006. The proceedings show a variety of approaches and include the selected 8 research papers. The contributions cover the focus theme through conceptual models and systems design, application scenarios as well as evaluation research approaches

Estimating the Use of Higher-Order Theory of Mind Using Computational Agents

When people make decisions in a social context, they often make use of theory of mind, by reasoning about unobservable mental content of others. For example, the behavior of a pedestrian who wants to cross the street depends on whether or not he believes that the driver of an oncoming car has seen him or not. People can also reason about the theory of mind abilities of others, leading to recursive thinking of the sort 'I think that you think that I think.'. Previous research suggests that this ability may be especially effective in simple competitive settings. In this paper, we use a combination of computational agents and Bayesian model selection to determine to what extent people make use of higher-order theory of mind reasoning in a particular competitive game known as matching pennies. We find that while many children and adults appear to make use of theory of mind, participants are also often classified as using a simpler reactive strategy based only on the actions of the directly preceding round. This may indicate that human reasoners do not primarily use their theory of mind abilities to compete with others

Algorithmic Contracts

Algorithmic contracts are contracts in which an algorithm determines a party’s obligations. Some contracts are algorithmic because the parties used algorithms as negotiators before contract formation, choosing which terms to offer or accept. Other contracts are algorithmic because the parties agree that an algorithm to be run at some time after the contract formation will serve as a gap-filler. Such agreements are already common in high speed trading of financial products and will soon spread to other contexts. However, contract law doctrine does not currently have a coherent approach to describing the creation and enforcement of algorithmic contracts. This Article fills this gap in doctrinal law and legal literature, providing a definition and novel taxonomy of algorithmic contracts. The algorithmic contracts that present the most significant problems for con-tract law are those that involve “black box” algorithmic agents, whose decision-making is not functionally understandable ex ante – or sometimes not even human-intelligible at all. There is only a tenuous case for their enforceability under currently accepted approaches to contract law. The Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA) was written and widely adopted nearly twenty years ago to make sure that contracts made electronically using basic automation techniques would be recognized as enforceable. However, the language of the UETA may be read to treat all putative contracts made with algorithms as properly formed, simply because they happen to be electronic. Unintended consequences of this approach include opportunities for fraud, market manipulation, and a general lack of algorithmic, and thus corporate, accountability. This Article’s approach looks to the common law of agency for inspiration. Some algorithms commonly used in contract formation have been delegated a level of responsibility that justifies the use of agency principles. When algorithms take on a role in contract formation analogous to that of human agents, they should be considered constructive agents for the purpose of contract formation. The company consenting to the contract can be said to have authorized or ratified the con-tract formed on its behalf by the algorithm. This approach explains easy cases while also showing why algorithmic contracts, even many black box algorithmic contracts, are enforceable. Furthermore, establishing a doctrinally robust connection between the actions of the algorithm and the intent of the contracting party promotes algorithmic accountability

A generic competency framework for labour relations practitioners in the South African Public Service.

This article reports on the findings of a qualitative content analysis study that explored the generic competencies required of labour relations practitioners in the South African public service with a view to developing a generic competency framework for these practitioners. Data were gathered through conducting semi-structured interviews with 17 labour relations experts from different institutions. The data were coded and categorised, and themes were identified that characterised the participants’ experiences, perceptions and views, providing evidence about the competencies of labour relations practitioners. From the data, 44 competencies were identified that could be regarded as essential to labour relations practitioners’ successful and efficient fulfilment of their role, and these competencies were grouped into nine themes. A generic competency framework for labour relations practitioners was developed based on the results obtained. The findings of this study could potentially form the foundation of new theory for the advancement, training and development of labour relations practitioners.Human Resource Managemen