Slight-Delay Shaped Variable Bit Rate (SD-SVBR) Technique for Video Transmission

The aim of this thesis is to present a new shaped Variable Bit Rate (VBR) for video transmission, which plays a crucial role in delivering video traffic over the Internet. This is due to the surge of video media applications over the Internet and the video typically has the characteristic of a highly bursty traffic, which leads to the Internet bandwidth fluctuation. This new shaped algorithm, referred to as Slight Delay - Shaped Variable Bit Rate (SD-SVBR), is aimed at controlling the video rate for video application transmission. It is designed based on the Shaped VBR (SVBR) algorithm and was implemented in the Network Simulator 2 (ns-2). SVBR algorithm is devised for real-time video applications and it has several limitations and weaknesses due to its embedded estimation or prediction processes. SVBR faces several problems, such as the occurrence of unwanted sharp decrease in data rate, buffer overflow, the existence of a low data rate, and the generation of a cyclical negative fluctuation. The new algorithm is capable of producing a high data rate and at the same time a better quantization parameter (QP) stability video sequence. In addition, the data rate is shaped efficiently to prevent unwanted sharp increment or decrement, and to avoid buffer overflow. To achieve the aim, SD-SVBR has three strategies, which are processing the next Group of Picture (GoP) video sequence and obtaining the QP-to-data rate list, dimensioning the data rate to a higher utilization of the leaky-bucket, and implementing a QP smoothing method by carefully measuring the effects of following the previous QP value. However, this algorithm has to be combined with a network feedback algorithm to produce a better overall video rate control. A combination of several video clips, which consisted of a varied video rate, has been used for the purpose of evaluating SD-SVBR performance. The results showed that SD-SVBR gains an impressive overall Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR) value. In addition, in almost all cases, it gains a high video rate but without buffer overflow, utilizes the buffer well, and interestingly, it is still able to obtain smoother QP fluctuation

Multi-tenant Admission Control for future networks

The global telecommunications landscape is going to shift considerably due to the impact of the new generation of future networks. It is estimated that by 2025, one-third of the global population will use 5G. Accordingly, all industry players are searching to develop new business cases. One of the main capabilities of 5G to answer these new requirements is Network Slicing since it allows splitting a common infrastructure into several virtual networks, enabling Multi-tenancy. In this case, the admission control function plays a vital role in ensuring the correct operation of these virtual networks by providing the required QoS to the services by allocating radio resources to them. Consequently, the purpose of this thesis is to study a new method to implement the admission control function, which allows optimizing the use of radio resources, to increase the available capacity of tenants, and offer flexibility under different traffic loads. Several simulations are performed to evaluate the algorithm within a multi-tenant, multi-cell environment using MATLAB, where the simplicity and flexibility of our proposal are assessed in each cell and the whole scenario. We obtain a 127% improvement in the bit rate when compared with a baseline scheme, and a gain of 17% when compared to a reference scheme that allows using extra capacity left by other tenants

Non-stationary service curves : model and estimation method with application to cellular sleep scheduling

In today’s computer networks, short-lived flows are predominant. Consequently, transient start-up effects such as the connection establishment in cellular networks have a significant impact on the performance. Although various solutions are derived in the fields of queuing theory, available bandwidths, and network calculus, the focus is, e.g., about the mean wake-up times, estimates of the available bandwidth, which consist either out of a single value or a stationary function and steady-state solutions for backlog and delay. Contrary, the analysis during transient phases presents fundamental challenges that have only been partially solved and is therefore understood to a much lesser extent. To better comprehend systems with transient characteristics and to explain their behavior, this thesis contributes a concept of non-stationary service curves that belong to the framework of stochastic network calculus. Thereby, we derive models of sleep scheduling including time-variant performance bounds for backlog and delay. We investigate the impact of arrival rates and different duration of wake-up times, where the metrics of interest are the transient overshoot and relaxation time. We compare a time-variant and a time-invariant description of the service with an exact solution. To avoid probabilistic and maybe unpredictable effects from random services, we first choose a deterministic description of the service and present results that illustrate that only the time-variant service curve can follow the progression of the exact solution. In contrast, the time-invariant service curve remains in the worst-case value. Since in real cellular networks, it is well known that the service and sleep scheduling procedure is random, we extend the theory to the stochastic case and derive a model with a non-stationary service curve based on regenerative processes. Further, the estimation of cellular network’s capacity/ available bandwidth from measurements is an important topic that attracts research, and several works exist that obtain an estimate from measurements. Assuming a system without any knowledge about its internals, we investigate existing measurement methods such as the prevalent rate scanning and the burst response method. We find fundamental limitations to estimate the service accurately in a time-variant way, which can be explained by the non-convexity of transient services and their super-additive network processes. In order to overcome these limitations, we derive a novel two-phase probing technique. In the first step, the shape of a minimal probe is identified, which we then use to obtain an accurate estimate of the unknown service. To demonstrate the minimal probing method’s applicability, we perform a comprehensive measurement campaign in cellular networks with sleep scheduling (2G, 3G, and 4G). Here, we observe significant transient backlogs and delay overshoots that persist for long relaxation times by sending constant-bit-rate traffic, which matches the findings from our theoretical model. Contrary, the minimal probing method shows another strength: sending the minimal probe eliminates the transient overshoots and relaxation times

Design and Analysis of Green Mission-Critical Fiber-Wireless Broadband Access Networks

In recent years, the ever-increasing environmental friendliness concern has made energy efficiency in telecom networks as an important theme in their operations. Meanwhile, mission-critical (MC) services and systems (such as healthcare, police, and firefighting) have been acquiring special attention from telecom designers and operators. The currently deployed MC network technologies are indigent in terms of bandwidth capacity, and thus they are not able to support the emerging MC multimedia applications. Therefore in this thesis, we first explore the possibility of provisioning the MC services over the integration of fiber-wireless (FiWi) technologies, which has been considered as a promising candidate for the deployment of high-speed and mobile broadband access networks. We then investigate the energy efficiency problem in the FiWi integration, which consists of WiMAX in the wireless plane, and of Ethernet Passive Optical Network (EPON) - the most popular variant of the next-generation PON (NG-PON) technology, in the optical plane. In WiMAX, the energy saving protocol has been extensively investigated and standardized. Conversely, it has been recently studied in NG-PON, which currently consumes the least power among all the high-speed access networks. However, NG-PON has notably matured in the past few years and is envisioned to massively evolve in the near future. This trend will increase the power requirements of NG-PON and make it no longer coveted. Therefore we address the energy efficiency problem in NG-PON. For each of our contributions, we conduct extensive simulations to demonstrate the effectiveness and advantages of the proposed solutions

Quality of service differentiation for multimedia delivery in wireless LANs

Delivering multimedia content to heterogeneous devices over a variable networking environment while maintaining high quality levels involves many technical challenges. The research reported in this thesis presents a solution for Quality of Service (QoS)-based service differentiation when delivering multimedia content over the wireless LANs. This thesis has three major contributions outlined below: 1. A Model-based Bandwidth Estimation algorithm (MBE), which estimates the available bandwidth based on novel TCP and UDP throughput models over IEEE 802.11 WLANs. MBE has been modelled, implemented, and tested through simulations and real life testing. In comparison with other bandwidth estimation techniques, MBE shows better performance in terms of error rate, overhead, and loss. 2. An intelligent Prioritized Adaptive Scheme (iPAS), which provides QoS service differentiation for multimedia delivery in wireless networks. iPAS assigns dynamic priorities to various streams and determines their bandwidth share by employing a probabilistic approach-which makes use of stereotypes. The total bandwidth to be allocated is estimated using MBE. The priority level of individual stream is variable and dependent on stream-related characteristics and delivery QoS parameters. iPAS can be deployed seamlessly over the original IEEE 802.11 protocols and can be included in the IEEE 802.21 framework in order to optimize the control signal communication. iPAS has been modelled, implemented, and evaluated via simulations. The results demonstrate that iPAS achieves better performance than the equal channel access mechanism over IEEE 802.11 DCF and a service differentiation scheme on top of IEEE 802.11e EDCA, in terms of fairness, throughput, delay, loss, and estimated PSNR. Additionally, both objective and subjective video quality assessment have been performed using a prototype system. 3. A QoS-based Downlink/Uplink Fairness Scheme, which uses the stereotypes-based structure to balance the QoS parameters (i.e. throughput, delay, and loss) between downlink and uplink VoIP traffic. The proposed scheme has been modelled and tested through simulations. The results show that, in comparison with other downlink/uplink fairness-oriented solutions, the proposed scheme performs better in terms of VoIP capacity and fairness level between downlink and uplink traffic

Adaptive scheduling in cellular access, wireless mesh and IP networks

Networking scenarios in the future will be complex and will include fixed networks and hybrid Fourth Generation (4G) networks, consisting of both infrastructure-based and infrastructureless, wireless parts. In such scenarios, adaptive provisioning and management of network resources becomes of critical importance. Adaptive mechanisms are desirable since they enable a self-configurable network that is able to adjust itself to varying traffic and channel conditions. The operation of adaptive mechanisms is heavily based on measurements. The aim of this thesis is to investigate how measurement based, adaptive packet scheduling algorithms can be utilized in different networking environments. The first part of this thesis is a proposal for a new delay-based scheduling algorithm, known as Delay-Bounded Hybrid Proportional Delay (DBHPD), for delay adaptive provisioning in DiffServ-based fixed IP networks. This DBHPD algorithm is thoroughly evaluated by ns2-simulations and measurements in a FreeBSD prototype router network. It is shown that DBHPD results in considerably more controllable differentiation than basic static bandwidth sharing algorithms. The prototype router measurements also prove that a DBHPD algorithm can be easily implemented in practice, causing less processing overheads than a well known CBQ algorithm. The second part of this thesis discusses specific scheduling requirements set by hybrid 4G networking scenarios. Firstly, methods for joint scheduling and transmit beamforming in 3.9G or 4G networks are described and quantitatively analyzed using statistical methods. The analysis reveals that the combined gain of channel-adaptive scheduling and transmit beamforming is substantial and that an On-off strategy can achieve the performance of an ideal Max SNR strategy if the feedback threshold is optimized. Finally, a novel cross-layer energy-adaptive scheduling and queue management framework EAED (Energy Aware Early Detection), for preserving delay bounds and minimizing energy consumption in WLAN mesh networks, is proposed and evaluated with simulations. The simulations show that our scheme can save considerable amounts of transmission energy without violating application level QoS requirements when traffic load and distances are reasonable

Resource Allocation in Relay-based Satellite and Wireless Communication Networks

A two-level bandwidth allocation scheme is proposed for a slotted Time-Division Multiple Access high data rate relay satellite communication link to provide efficient and fair channel utilization. The long-term allocation is implemented to provide per-flow/per-user Quality-of-Service guarantees and shape the average behavior. The time-varying short-term allocation is determined by solving an optimal timeslot scheduling problem based on the requests and other parameters. Through extensive simulations, the performance of a suitable MAC protocol with two-level bandwidth allocation is analyzed and compared with that of the existing static fixed-assignment scheme in terms of end-to-end delay and successful throughput. It is also shown that pseudo-proportional fairness is achieved for our hybrid protocol. We study rate control systems with heterogeneous time-varying propagation delays, based on analytic fluid flow models composed of first-order delay-differential equations. Both single-flow and multi-flow system models are analyzed, with special attention paid to the Mitra-Seery algorithm. The stationary solutions are investigated. For the fluctuating solutions, their dynamic behavior is analyzed in detail, analytically and numerically, in terms of amplitude, transient behavior, fairness and adaptability, etc.. Especially the effects of heterogeneous time-varying delays are investigated. It is shown that with proper parameter design the system can achieve stable behavior with close to pointwise proportional fairness among flows. Finally we investigate the resource allocation in 802.16j multi-hop relay systems with rate fairness constraints for two mutually exclusive options: transparent and non-transparent relay systems (T-RS and NT-RS). Single-Input Single-Output and Multi-Input Multi-Output antenna systems are considered in the links between the Base Station (BS) and Relay Stations (RS). 1 and 3 RSs per sector are considered. The Mobile Station (MS) association rule, which determines the access station (BS or RS) for each MS, is also studied. Two rules: Highest MCS scheme with the highest modulation and coding rate, and Highest (Mod) ESE scheme with the highest (modified) effective spectrum efficiency, are studied along with the optimal rule that maximizes system capacity with rate fairness constraints. Our simulation results show that the highest capacity is always achieved by NT-RS with 3 RSs per sector in distributed scheduling mode, and that the Highest (Mod) ESE scheme performs closely to the optimal rule in terms of system capacity

An admission control scheme for IEEE 802.11e wireless local area networks

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 80-84).Recent times has seen a tremendous increase in the deployment and use of 802.11 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). These networks are easy to deploy and maintain, while providing reasonably high data rates at a low cost. In the paradigm of Next-Generation-Networks (NGNs), WLANs can be seen as an important access network technology to support IP multimedia services. However a traditional WLAN does not provide Quality of Service (QoS) support since it was originally designed for best effort operation. The IEEE 802. 11e standard was introduced to overcome the lack of QoS support for the legacy IEEE 802 .11 WLANs. It enhances the Media Access Control (MAC) layer operations to incorporate service differentiation. However, there is a need to prevent overloading of wireless channels, since the QoS experienced by traffic flows is degraded with heavily loaded channels. An admission control scheme for IEEE 802.11e WLANs would be the best solution to limit the amount of multimedia traffic so that channel overloading can be prevented. Some of the work in the literature proposes admission control solutions to protect the QoS of real-time traffic for IEEE 802.11e Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA). However, these solutions often under-utilize the resources of the wireless channels. A measurement-aided model-based admission control scheme for IEEE 802.11e EDCA WLANs is proposed to provide reasonable bandwidth guarantees to all existing flows. The admission control scheme makes use of bandwidth estimations that allows the bandwidth guarantees of all the flows that are admitted into the network to be protected. The bandwidth estimations are obtained using a developed analytical model of IEEE 802.11e EDCA channels. The admission control scheme also aims to accept the maximum amount of flows that can be accommodated by the network's resources. Through simulations, the performance of the proposed admission control scheme is evaluated using NS-2. Results show that accurate bandwidth estimations can be obtained when comparing the estimated achievable bandwidth to actual simulated bandwidth. The results also validate that the bandwidth needs of all admitted traffic are always satisfied when the admission control scheme is applied. It was also found that the admission control scheme allows the maximum amount of flows to be admitted into the network, according the network's capacity

Cellular and Wi-Fi technologies evolution: from complementarity to competition

This PhD thesis has the characteristic to span over a long time because while working on it, I was working as a research engineer at CTTC with highly demanding development duties. This has delayed the deposit more than I would have liked. On the other hand, this has given me the privilege of witnessing and studying how wireless technologies have been evolving over a decade from 4G to 5G and beyond. When I started my PhD thesis, IEEE and 3GPP were defining the two main wireless technologies at the time, Wi-Fi and LTE, for covering two substantially complementary market targets. Wi-Fi was designed to operate mostly indoor, in unlicensed spectrum, and was aimed to be a simple and cheap technology. Its primary technology for coexistence was based on the assumption that the spectrum on which it was operating was for free, and so it was designed with interference avoidance through the famous CSMA/CA protocol. On the other hand, 3GPP was designing technologies for licensed spectrum, a costly kind of spectrum. As a result, LTE was designed to take the best advantage of it while providing the best QoE in mainly outdoor scenarios. The PhD thesis starts in this context and evolves with these two technologies. In the first chapters, the thesis studies radio resource management solutions for standalone operation of Wi-Fi in unlicensed and LTE in licensed spectrum. We anticipated the now fundamental machine learning trend by working on machine learning-based radio resource management solutions to improve LTE and Wi-Fi operation in their respective spectrum. We pay particular attention to small cell deployments aimed at improving the spectrum efficiency in licensed spectrum, reproducing small range scenarios typical of Wi-Fi settings. IEEE and 3GPP followed evolving the technologies over the years: Wi-Fi has grown into a much more complex and sophisticated technology, incorporating the key features of cellular technologies, like HARQ, OFDMA, MU-MIMO, MAC scheduling and spatial reuse. On the other hand, since Release 13, cellular networks have also been designed for unlicensed spectrum. As a result, the two last chapters of this thesis focus on coexistence scenarios, in which LTE needs to be designed to coexist with Wi-Fi fairly, and NR, the radio access for 5G, with Wi-Fi in 5 GHz and WiGig in 60 GHz. Unlike LTE, which was adapted to operate in unlicensed spectrum, NR-U is natively designed with this feature, including its capability to operate in unlicensed in a complete standalone fashion, a fundamental new milestone for cellular. In this context, our focus of analysis changes. We consider that these two technological families are no longer targeting complementarity but are now competing, and we claim that this will be the trend for the years to come. To enable the research in these multi-RAT scenarios, another fundamental result of this PhD thesis, besides the scientific contributions, is the release of high fidelity models for LTE and NR and their coexistence with Wi-Fi and WiGig to the ns-3 open-source community. ns-3 is a popular open-source network simulator, with the characteristic to be multi-RAT and so naturally allows the evaluation of coexistence scenarios between different technologies. These models, for which I led the development, are by academic citations, the most used open-source simulation models for LTE and NR and havereceived fundings from industry (Ubiquisys, WFA, SpiderCloud, Interdigital, Facebook) and federal agencies (NIST, LLNL) over the years.Aquesta tesi doctoral té la característica d’allargar-se durant un llarg període de temps ja que mentre treballava en ella, treballava com a enginyera investigadora a CTTC amb tasques de desenvolupament molt exigents. Això ha endarrerit el dipositar-la més del que m’hagués agradat. D’altra banda, això m’ha donat el privilegi de ser testimoni i estudiar com han evolucionat les tecnologies sense fils durant més d’una dècada des del 4G fins al 5G i més enllà. Quan vaig començar la tesi doctoral, IEEE i 3GPP estaven definint les dues tecnologies sense fils principals en aquell moment, Wi-Fi i LTE, que cobreixen dos objectius de mercat substancialment complementaris. Wi-Fi va ser dissenyat per funcionar principalment en interiors, en espectre sense llicència, i pretenia ser una tecnologia senzilla i barata. La seva tecnologia primària per a la convivència es basava en el supòsit que l’espectre en el que estava operant era de franc, i, per tant, es va dissenyar simplement evitant interferències a través del famós protocol CSMA/CA. D’altra banda, 3GPP estava dissenyant tecnologies per a espectres amb llicència, un tipus d’espectre costós. Com a resultat, LTE està dissenyat per treure’n el màxim profit alhora que proporciona el millor QoE en escenaris principalment a l’aire lliure. La tesi doctoral comença amb aquest context i evoluciona amb aquestes dues tecnologies. En els primers capítols, estudiem solucions de gestió de recursos de radio per a operacions en espectre de Wi-Fi sense llicència i LTE amb llicència. Hem anticipat l’actual tendència fonamental d’aprenentatge automàtic treballant solucions de gestió de recursos de radio basades en l’aprenentatge automàtic per millorar l’LTE i Wi-Fi en el seu espectre respectiu. Prestem especial atenció als desplegaments de cèl·lules petites destinades a millorar la eficiència d’espectre llicenciat, reproduint escenaris de petit abast típics de la configuració Wi-Fi. IEEE i 3GPP van seguir evolucionant les tecnologies al llarg dels anys: El Wi-Fi s’ha convertit en una tecnologia molt més complexa i sofisticada, incorporant les característiques clau de les tecnologies cel·lulars, com ara HARQ i la reutilització espacial. D’altra banda, des de la versió 13, també s’han dissenyat xarxes cel·lulars per a espectre sense llicència. Com a resultat, els dos darrers capítols d’aquesta tesi es centren en aquests escenaris de convivència, on s’ha de dissenyar LTE per conviure amb la Wi-Fi de manera justa, i NR, l’accés a la radio per a 5G amb Wi-Fi a 5 GHz i WiGig a 60 GHz. A diferència de LTE, que es va adaptar per funcionar en espectre sense llicència, NR-U està dissenyat de forma nativa amb aquesta característica, inclosa la seva capacitat per operar sense llicència de forma autònoma completa, una nova fita fonamental per al mòbil. En aquest context, el nostre focus d’anàlisi canvia. Considerem que aquestes dues famílies de tecnologia ja no estan orientades cap a la complementarietat, sinó que ara competeixen, i afirmem que aquesta serà el tendència per als propers anys. Per permetre la investigació en aquests escenaris multi-RAT, un altre resultat fonamental d’aquesta tesi doctoral, a més de les aportacions científiques, és l’alliberament de models d’alta fidelitat per a LTE i NR i la seva coexistència amb Wi-Fi a la comunitat de codi obert ns-3. ns-3 és un popular simulador de xarxa de codi obert, amb la característica de ser multi-RAT i, per tant, permet l’avaluació de manera natural d’escenaris de convivència entre diferents tecnologies. Aquests models, pels quals he liderat el desenvolupament, són per cites acadèmiques, els models de simulació de codi obert més utilitzats per a LTE i NR i que han rebut finançament de la indústria (Ubiquisys, WFA, SpiderCloud, Interdigital, Facebook) i agències federals (NIST, LLNL) al llarg dels anys.Esta tesis doctoral tiene la característica de extenderse durante mucho tiempo porque mientras trabajaba en ella, trabajaba como ingeniera de investigación en CTTC con tareas de desarrollo muy exigentes. Esto ha retrasado el depósito más de lo que me hubiera gustado. Por otro lado, gracias a ello, he tenido el privilegio de presenciar y estudiar como las tecnologías inalámbricas han evolucionado durante una década, de 4G a 5G y más allá. Cuando comencé mi tesis doctoral, IEEE y 3GPP estaban definiendo las dos principales tecnologías inalámbricas en ese momento, Wi-Fi y LTE, cumpliendo dos objetivos de mercado sustancialmente complementarios. Wi-Fi fue diseñado para funcionar principalmente en interiores, en un espectro sin licencia, y estaba destinado a ser una tecnología simple y barata. Su tecnología primaria para la convivencia se basaba en el supuesto en que el espectro en el que estaba operando era gratis, y así fue diseñado simplemente evitando interferencias a través del famoso protocolo CSMA/CA. Por otro lado, 3GPP estaba diseñando tecnologías para espectro con licencia, un tipo de espectro costoso. Como resultado, LTE está diseñado para aprovechar el espectro al máximo proporcionando al mismo tiempo el mejor QoE en escenarios principalmente al aire libre. La tesis doctoral parte de este contexto y evoluciona con estas dos tecnologías. En los primeros capítulos, estudiamos las soluciones de gestión de recursos de radio para operación en espectro Wi-Fi sin licencia y LTE con licencia. Anticipamos la tendencia ahora fundamental de aprendizaje automático trabajando en soluciones de gestión de recursos de radio para mejorar LTE y funcionamiento deWi-Fi en su respectivo espectro. Prestamos especial atención a las implementaciones de células pequeñas destinadas a mejorar la eficiencia de espectro licenciado, reproduciendo los típicos escenarios de rango pequeño de la configuración Wi-Fi. IEEE y 3GPP siguieron evolucionando las tecnologías a lo largo de los años: Wi-Fi se ha convertido en una tecnología mucho más compleja y sofisticada, incorporando las características clave de las tecnologías celulares, como HARQ, OFDMA, MU-MIMO, MAC scheduling y la reutilización espacial. Por otro lado, desde la Release 13, también se han diseñado redes celulares para espectro sin licencia. Como resultado, los dos últimos capítulos de esta tesis se centran en estos escenarios de convivencia, donde LTE debe diseñarse para coexistir con Wi-Fi de manera justa, y NR, el acceso por radio para 5G con Wi-Fi en 5 GHz y WiGig en 60 GHz. A diferencia de LTE, que se adaptó para operar en espectro sin licencia, NR-U está diseñado de forma nativa con esta función, incluyendo su capacidad para operar sin licencia de forma completamente independiente, un nuevo hito fundamental para los celulares. En este contexto, cambia nuestro enfoque de análisis. Consideramos que estas dos familias tecnológicas ya no tienen como objetivo la complementariedad, sino que ahora están compitiendo, y afirmamos que esta será la tendencia para los próximos años. Para permitir la investigación en estos escenarios de múltiples RAT, otro resultado fundamental de esta tesis doctoral, además de los aportes científicos, es el lanzamiento de modelos de alta fidelidad para LTE y NR y su coexistencia con Wi-Fi y WiGig a la comunidad de código abierto de ns-3. ns-3 es un simulador popular de red de código abierto, con la característica de ser multi-RAT y así, naturalmente, permite la evaluación de escenarios de convivencia entre diferentes tecnologías. Estos modelos, para los cuales lideré el desarrollo, son por citas académicas, los modelos de simulación de código abierto más utilizados para LTE y NR y han recibido fondos de la industria (Ubiquisys, WFA, SpiderCloud, Interdigital, Facebook) y agencias federales (NIST, LLNL) a lo largo de los años.Postprint (published version