우리나라 주요 대도시(서울, 대전, 광주, 울산)의 PM2.5 구성성분 및 오염원 기여도에 의한 건강영향 분석

학위논문(박사) -- 서울대학교대학원 : 보건대학원 환경보건학과, 2023. 2. 이승묵.PM2.5에 대한 노출은 전 세계적으로 사람의 건강에 심각한 위협이 되고 있으며, 사망과 장애에 영향을 미치는 대표적인 위험 인자(risk factor)이다. 우리나라 역시 급속한 산업화 및 도시화에 따라 PM2.5에 의한 심각한 대기질 문제를 겪고 있으며, 대기 중 PM2.5 농도 저감을 위해 다양한 정책이 추진되고 있다. PM2.5는 불균일 혼합물(heterogeneous mixture)로 황산염, 질산염, 유기탄소, 원소탄소 및 비소, 크롬과 같은 중금속 등의 매우 다양한 화학물질로 구성되는데, PM2.5의 화학적 조성은 지역에 따라 다른 (region- specific) 특성이 있다. 이는 PM2.5가 배출원에서의 직접 배출(primary emission) 보다 황산화물(SOx), 질소산화물(NOx), 휘발성 유기화합물(VOCs) 등 가스상 전구물질의 대기 중 화학반응에 의한 2차 생성(secondary formation)을 통해 주로 대기 중에 존재하기 때문이다. 즉, 대상지역 및 인근지역의 전구물질 배출량, 대기 중 전구물질의 농도, 기상조건, 오염원의 위치, 지리적 특성 등 매우 다양한 인자들에 의해 PM2.5 조성이 결정된다. PM2.5 화학적 조성은 대상 지역의 PM2.5에 영향을 나타내는 주요 오염원을 규명하고, 각 오염원의 기여도를 산정함에 있어 매우 중요한 요소이다. 또한, 화학적 조성은 궁극적으로 PM2.5 노출이 인체에 유발하는 건강영향과도 밀접하게 연관되어 있기 때문에 보건학적 측면에서의 PM2.5 관리를 위해서는 대상 지역에서의 PM2.5의 구성성분 및 오염원에 의한 건강영향을 정량적으로 산정할 필요가 있다.본 연구에서는대기관리권역의 대기환경개선에 관한 특별법에 따라 지정된 4개 대기관리권역을 대표하는 대도시인 서울, 대전, 광주, 울산에서 2014년부터 5년간 분석된 일별 PM2.5 질량농도 및 구성성분 농도를 이용하여 도시별 오염원을 규명하고, 각 오염원의 기여도를 산정하였다. 또한, 같은 기간 PM2.5 구성성분 농도 및 오염원 기여도와 일별 사망자 수 및 응급실 내원환자 수의 연관성을 분석함으로써 PM2.5 노출이 사망과 질병에 미치는 건강영향을 산정하여 건강영향 측면에서 도시별 오염원 관리의 우선순위 선정을 위한 기초자료를 구축하였다.PMF 모델링을 통해 확인된 오염원은 서울, 광주, 울산의 경우 총 10개로 이차 질산염, 이차 황산염, 자동차, 생물성 연소, 소각시설, 토양, 산업, 석탄 연소, 석유 연소, 노후 해염입자 오염원으로 나타났다. 대전의 경우 지리적 위치로 인해 노후 해염입자 오염원은 확인되지 않았고, 나머지 9개 오염원은 다른 도시들과 동일한 것으로 확인되었다. 오염원 기여도에 있어서는 4개 도시 모두에서 공통적으로 이차 질산염, 이차 황산염 및 자동차 오염원에 의한 기여도가 60% 이상으로 나타나 PM2.5가 주로 대기 중 이차생성 및 자동차에 기인하는 것을 확인하였다. 하지만 다른 오염원의 기여도는 도시별 특성에 따라 다르게 나타났는데 특히, 대규모 화력발전소에 인접한 서울, 광주의 경우 석탄 연소 오염원의 기여도가 10% 내외로 높게 나타나 해당 도시에서 네번째로 높은 기여도를 보였다. 반면, 가장 동쪽에 위치한 울산에서는 석탄 연소 오염원의 기여율은 상대적으로 낮았으나 대규모 중화학 공업 도시의 특성이 반영되어 산업 오염원의 기여도가 다른 도시에 비해 월등히 높게 나타났다.PM2.5 구성성분 및 오염원 기여도와 건강영향의 연관성을 분석한 결과는 PM2.5 구성성분 농도 및 오염원 기여도의 단위(IQR) 증가가 전반적으로 사망 및 질병의 상대위험도 증가로 이어짐을 보여주었다. 그러나 구성성분 및 오염원 기여도와 건강영향 사이 연관성의 유의성 및 정도는 지역마다 다르게 나타났다. 먼저 구성성분이 사망에 미치는 영향의 경우 서울, 대전에서는 주로 심혈관계 사망에서 중금속, 유기탄소 등의 구성성분과의 유의한 연관성이 확인되었으나 광주에서는 주로 호흡기계 사망의 상대위험도가 중금속, 이온성분과 밀접한 관계가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 오염원-사망의 연관성에 있어서는 사망의 상대위험도를 증가시킨 구성성분과 밀접한 오염원의 기여도 증가가 사망과 밀접한 것으로 확인되었다. 따라서 PM2.5 노출로 인한 사망 영향을 줄이기 위해서는 도시별 건강영향 분석에 따라 오염원 관리의 우선순위를 마련하고, 각 오염원별 배출량 저감을 위한 정책이 수반될 필요성이 있다. 사망과 다르게 PM2.5 노출에 따른 질병 영향은 주로 호흡기계 질병을 중심으로 구성성분 및 오염원 기여도와 유의한 연관성이 확인되었다. 이 같은 결과는 PM2.5의 주 노출경로가 호흡(inhalation)이고, PM2.5가 매우 미세한 크기로 인해 매질인 공기와 유사하게 거동함에 따라 상기도 뿐만 아니라 하기도인 기관, 기관지, 폐포 등에도 쉽게 도달한 후 염증 반응, 산화스트레스 등의 메커니즘을 통해 호흡기계에 급성 영향을 나타내기 때문으로 판단된다. 상기 메커니즘에 의해 호흡기계 기관에서 생성된 염증성 사이토카인, 활성산소종 등은 다시 전신순환을 통해 심혈관계에 도달해 질병을 유발할 수 있고, 궁극적으로 사망의 위험도를 증가시킬 수 있다. 본 연구의 결과는 대기 중 질량농도 저감에 초점이 맞추어져 있는 현재의 PM2.5 관리정책이 지역별 조성, 오염원 기여도 및 건강영향 특성을 고려한 정책으로 확대될 필요성이 있음을 시사한다. 즉, 환경 오염물질 관리의 궁극적인 목적은 오염물질에 대한 노출이 인체에 유발하는 부정적인 영향을 최소화함으로써 국민의 건강과 안녕을 유지하는 것이기 때문에 지역 특이적인 PM2.5의 조성과 그로 인해 다르게 나타나는 건강영향을 평가함으로써 최적의 대기관리 정책 및 계획 등을 수립하여 실행할 필요가 있다.Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has been revealed as severe threats to human health and one of the major risk factors driving both death and disability. South Korea is one of the countries have been suffering from serious air pollution, especially problems related to PM2.5. PM2.5 is a heterogeneous mixture of numerous components such as sulfate, nitrate, organic carbon, elemental carbon, arsenic, lead. The chemical compositional characteristics are highly region-specific because most of the PM2.5 mass concentration is attributable to secondary particles, formed by the reactions among gaseous precursors in the atmosphere. In general, the factors affecting secondary formation are meteorological conditions, source locations, geographical features of the region well as the ambient concentration of gaseous pollutants including sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides. Therefore, understanding the chemical composition and source profiles in the region of interest is crucial for controlling PM2.5. Moreover, the assessment of health risk caused by PM2.5 exposure needs to conducted to mitigate the adverse health effects from a public health perspective. In this study, the associations of cause-specific mortality and morbidity with both PM2.5 constituents and source contributions were investigated in four metropolitan cities, namely Seoul, Daejeon, Gwangju, and Ulsan. Each city represents the air control zone in the country designated by a special act as of April 2020 to mitigate and control the air pollution on a regional basis. For the analyses, generalized linear model (GLM) was applied to the data including daily health outcomes, the average concentrations of PM2.5 constituents and the results of PMF modelling. The findings show that short-term exposure to PM2.5 constituents largely increased the relative risk (RR) of mortality and morbidity. However, the significance and strength of associations were different among the cities. In addition, source contributions also increased the RR of mortality and morbidity with different strength. In summary, the results of the study imply the importance of approaches based on compositional characteristics and health risk in making proper policies in the region of interest to mitigate the negative health effects of PM2.5 exposure more efficiently.Chapter 1. Background 1 1. Introduction 2 2. Potential mechanisms of health effects of PM2.5 exposure 4 2.1 Respiratory system 4 2.2 Cardiovascular system 6 3. Objectives of the study 7 References 10 Chapter 2. Compositional characteristics of ambient PM2.5 in Seoul, Daejeon, Gwangju, and Ulsan during 2014–2018 16 Abstract 17 1. Introduction 18 2. Materials and methods 19 2.1 Study area and period 19 2.2 Data 22 3. Results and discussion 23 3.1 PM2.5 mass and gaseous precursors 23 3.2 PM2.5 chemical constituents 31 4. Conclusions 50 References 52 Chapter 3. Source apportionment of PM2.5 in Seoul, Daejeon, Gwangju, and Ulsan during 2014-2018 56 Abstract 57 1. Introduction 58 2. Materials and methods 59 2.1 Input data 59 2.2 PMF modelling 59 2.3 Conditional probability function 61 2.4 Potential source contribution function 62 3. Results and discussion 64 3.1 Source apportionment 64 3.2 Seasonal source contributions 78 3.3 Possible source locations 86 4. Conclusions 108 References 110 Chapter 4. Associations of PM2.5 chemical constituents and source contributions with mortality 122 Abstract 123 1. Introduction 124 2. Materials and methods 125 2.1 Data 125 2.2 Statistical model 126 3. Results and discussion 129 4. Conclusions 150 References 152 Chapter 5. Associations of PM2.5 chemical constituents and source contributions with morbidity 158 Abstract 159 1. Introduction 160 2. Materials and methods 161 2.1 Data 161 2.2 Statistical model 163 3. Results and discussion 165 4. Conclusions 181 References 183 Chapter 6. Summary, significance, and conclusions 192 1. Summary 193 1.1 Compositional characteristics and source apportionment of ambient PM2.5 in Seoul, Daejeon, Gwangju, and Ulsan during 2014-2018 193 1.2 Associations of PM2.5 chemical constituents and source contributions with mortality 195 1.3 Associations of PM2.5 chemical constituents and source contributions with morbidity 196 2. Significance 197 2.1 Region-specific characteristics of the health effects of PM2.5 exposure on mortality 197 2.2 Impacts of government policy interventions on PM2.5 composition, source contribution, and health effects 198 3. Conclusions 207 References 210 국문초록 213박

Description of the antipredatory head-wobble behaviour in Chilean rear-fanged snakes Tachymenis peruviana Wiegmann, 1835 and Tachymenis chilensis coronellina Werner, 1898 (Serpentes, Dipsadidae)

In this work, we describe the first records of head-wobble behaviour for Tachymenis peruviana and T. chilensis coronellina. We analyse this behaviour (occurrence, frequency) and accompanying displays in both species. Of particular note is that T. ch. coronellina exhibited more frequent head-wobbling than T. peruviana and, in both records, wind activity was observed during this antipredatory behaviour

Parasocial Interactions in Dating-Simulations: Staging of Intimacy in Otome-Games

Unter Otome-Games werden Dating-Simulationen verstanden, die es den Spielerinnen und Spielern ermöglichen, eine Liebesgeschichte mit einer fiktiven Figur zu erleben. Auf der Annahme basierend, dass diese Spiele potenziell die Illusion einer sozialen Wechselbeziehung vermitteln, möchte der Beitrag den Gegenstand mit Hilfe des Begriffs «parasoziale Interaktion» (beruhend auf Horton und Wohl 1956) rahmen. Es wird der Frage nachgegangen, wie Otome-Games ihre Protagonist:innen inszenieren und damit womöglich parasoziale Interaktionen offerieren können. Dabei soll insbesondere die Struktur der Spiele mit Hilfe der neoformalistischen Computerspielanalyse (vgl. Fromme und Könitz 2014) in den Blick genommen werden. Innerhalb des interaktiven Mediums manifestieren sich vor allem die Option, die Adressat:innen direkt mit dem Namen anzusprechen und somit in das Spielgeschehen zu involvieren. Auch die stets präsente Inszenierung der medialen Charaktere (bspw. stetiger Augenkontakt, vermögen mediale Kommunikation in Form von Chats und Anrufen zu simulieren) bietet neue Möglichkeiten der parasozialen Interaktion. Trotz dieser Optionen bleibt die Interaktion limitiert und einseitig, da die Figuren nicht auf die Belange der Nutzer:innen eingehen können.Otome games are dating simulations that enable players to experience a love story with a fictional character. Based on the assumption that the games potentially convey the illusion of a social interrelationship, the article would like to deepen the understanding of the subject with the help of the term parasocial interaction (based on Horton and Wohl 1956). The question of how otome games can stage their characters and thus potentially offer parasocial interactions will be investigated. In particular, the structure of the games will be examined with the help of the neo-formalist computer game analysis (see Fromme and Könitz 2014). Above all, the interactive medium manifests itself in the options of addressing the players directly by name and thus involving them in the game. The constantly showing of the main characters (e.g. constant eye contact, able to simulate media communication in the form of chats and calls) also offers new possibilities for parasocial interactions. Despite these options, the interaction remains limited and one-sided, as the characters cannot respond to the needs of the users

Η έννοια της έξυπνης πόλης

Σημείωση: διατίθεται συμπληρωματικό υλικό σε ξεχωριστό αρχείο

The e-Government Development Discourse

research agenda for e-Government. When e-Government was first conceived, it was designed upon basic technologies where the emphasis was only on the simple display of government information for citizens to read. Nowadays, e-Government design comprises many complicated modules such as upload and download consoles, two-way interaction consoles between citizens and government agents, integrated government business processes presenting the whole of government, and it does not depend solely on technology. The complexity of e-Government has now evolved to include political, cultural, economic, social and technical dimensions. Bringing all these difficult aspects together is so complicated that it needs carefully planned strategies informed by local contextual characteristics. Rather than giving formulaic definitions and conceptual standpoints on many aspects of e-Government, as is the case in many e-Government publications, this book will explore the frontiers of global knowledge value chains by discussing current and future dimensions of e-Government. For example, the book discusses the concept of data governance by exploring how actual opening up of government data can be achieved, especially in a developing world context. Further, the book posits that opening government data should be followed by the opening up of government business processes in order to peddle the concept of accountability and responsiveness. Much text on data governance has concentrated on articulating the basic definitions surrounding this concept. Another very important topic explored in this book is regarding how the concept of decolonisation can be extended to e-Government by providing practical examples as to how researchers in the developing world can contribute to the advancement of e-Government as a scientific field of enquiry and guide its implementation, thereof. Decolonisation is advocated for in e-Government research so that there is a balance in the inclusion of the Afrocentric knowledge into e-Government advancement other than over-reliance on the Euro-, Asia- and America-centric knowledge value chains (Mbembe 2015). As e-Government is a very expensive undertaking, the issue of funding has excluded African countries and a majority of the developing world from implementing e-Government. Despite funding being a critical cornerstone of e-Government development, there is a dearth of information on this topic. Therefore, this book provides a chapter which discusses traditional and innovative ways of funding e-Government design and implementation which can go a long way in improving e-Government penetration into the developing world. Further, the book explores how intelligent e-Government applications can be designed, especially in resource-constrained countries. A couple of emerging technology innovations such as fog computing and intelligent information technology are explored within the realm of e-Government design

The e-Government Development Discourse

research agenda for e-Government. When e-Government was first conceived, it was designed upon basic technologies where the emphasis was only on the simple display of government information for citizens to read. Nowadays, e-Government design comprises many complicated modules such as upload and download consoles, two-way interaction consoles between citizens and government agents, integrated government business processes presenting the whole of government, and it does not depend solely on technology. The complexity of e-Government has now evolved to include political, cultural, economic, social and technical dimensions. Bringing all these difficult aspects together is so complicated that it needs carefully planned strategies informed by local contextual characteristics. Rather than giving formulaic definitions and conceptual standpoints on many aspects of e-Government, as is the case in many e-Government publications, this book will explore the frontiers of global knowledge value chains by discussing current and future dimensions of e-Government. For example, the book discusses the concept of data governance by exploring how actual opening up of government data can be achieved, especially in a developing world context. Further, the book posits that opening government data should be followed by the opening up of government business processes in order to peddle the concept of accountability and responsiveness. Much text on data governance has concentrated on articulating the basic definitions surrounding this concept. Another very important topic explored in this book is regarding how the concept of decolonisation can be extended to e-Government by providing practical examples as to how researchers in the developing world can contribute to the advancement of e-Government as a scientific field of enquiry and guide its implementation, thereof. Decolonisation is advocated for in e-Government research so that there is a balance in the inclusion of the Afrocentric knowledge into e-Government advancement other than over-reliance on the Euro-, Asia- and America-centric knowledge value chains (Mbembe 2015). As e-Government is a very expensive undertaking, the issue of funding has excluded African countries and a majority of the developing world from implementing e-Government. Despite funding being a critical cornerstone of e-Government development, there is a dearth of information on this topic. Therefore, this book provides a chapter which discusses traditional and innovative ways of funding e-Government design and implementation which can go a long way in improving e-Government penetration into the developing world. Further, the book explores how intelligent e-Government applications can be designed, especially in resource-constrained countries. A couple of emerging technology innovations such as fog computing and intelligent information technology are explored within the realm of e-Government design

Analysing contemporary and future growth prospects in developing and emerging economies

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