Measuring Coseismic Deformation With Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar: A Review

In the past 25 years, space-borne Synthetic Aperture Radar imagery has become an increasingly available data source for the study of crustal deformation associated with moderate to large earthquakes (M > 4.0). Coseismic surface deformation can be measured with several well-established techniques, the applicability of which depends on the ground displacement pattern, on several radar parameters, and on the surface properties at the time of the radar acquisitions. The state-of-the-art concerning the measurement techniques is reviewed, and their application to over 100 case-studies since the launch of the Sentinel-1a satellite is discussed, including the performance of the different methods and the data processing aspects, which still constitute topics of ongoing research

The 2-Look TOPS Mode: Design and Demonstration with TerraSAR-X

Burst-mode acquisition schemes achieve wide coverage at the expense of a degraded azimuth resolution, reducing therefore the performance on the retrieval of ground displacements in the azimuth direction, when interferometric acquisitions are combined. Moreover the azimuth varying line-of-sight can induce discontinuities in the interferometric phase when local azimuth displacements are present, e.g., due to ground deformation. In this contribution we propose the interferometric 2-look TOPS mode, a sustaining innovation, which records bursts of radar echoes of two separated slices of the Doppler spectrum. The spectral separation allows to exploit spectral diversity techniques, achieving sensitivities to azimuth displacements better than with StripMap, and eliminating discontinuities in the interferometric phase. Moreover some limitations of the TOPS mode to compensate ionospheric perturbations, in terms of data gaps or restricted sensitivity to azimuth shifts, are overcome. The design of 2-look TOPS acquisitions will be provided, taking the TerraSAR-X system as reference to derive achievable performances. The methodology for the retrieval of the azimuth displacement is exposed for the case of using pairs of images, as well as for the calculation of mean azimuth velocities when working with stacks. We include results with experimental TerraSAR-X acquisitions demonstrating its applicability for both scenarios

3-D Satellite Interferometry for Interseismic Velocity Fields

The global interseismic strain rate map is being accomplished rapidly with measurements of the space-based geodetic technique of InSAR. High-resolution measurements of crustal deformation from InSAR can provide crucial constraints on a region's active tectonics, geodynamics, and seismic hazard. However, space-based InSAR usually only provides good constraints on horizontal displacement in the east-west direction, with the north-south component typically provided by low-resolution GNSS measurements. Sentinel-1, on the other hand, has the potential to provide measurements that are sensitive to north-south motion, through exploitation of the burst overlap areas produced by the TOPS acquisition mode. However, the significant noise contributions from decorrelation and propagation through the ionosphere make it challenging to detect surface displacements associated with interseismic deformation needing millimeters per year accuracy. The ionospheric phase advance is a significant nuisance term that can bias InSAR measurements. Although methods have been developed to mitigate the effect, they are not always routinely applied when processing C-band SAR images, for which the effect is generally expected to be small. Nevertheless, the effect can be significant, especially when analyzing low deformation gradients over large areas using time-series analysis. Here, the work in Chapter 3 presents a time-series approach to ionospheric noise mitigation, which improves on existing methods. Firstly, I estimate the ionospheric contribution for each individual acquisition from multiple interferograms, which reduces noise. Secondly, this work improved the identification of unwrapping errors, which can bias the estimation. Thirdly, I introduce a new filtering approach, which gives better results, particularly at image edges and areas with variable density of coherent measurements. Furthermore, the approach is applicable when estimating along-track motion in burst overlap areas. The results show that applying the correction improves velocity accuracy significantly for both conventional line-of-sight and burst overlap interferometry techniques. The application of measuring long-term tectonic signals that concentrate in the north-south component with millimeters per year accuracy is essential to constrain interseismic strain globally. In Chapter 4, I also demonstrate a time-series approach with the burst overlap interferometry appropriate for extracting subtle long-term displacements. The approach includes mitigation of ionospheric noise, and I investigate different filtering approaches to optimize the reduction of decorrelation noise. I present the mean ground velocity in the azimuth direction from data acquired between 2014 and 2019 along the West-Lut Fault, a north-south striking fault in eastern Iran. The chi-square statistic defines a good agreement between the results and independent GNSS measurements. Moreover, the denser coverage of the technique allows to detect the variation in strain accumulation between northern and southern segments of the fault, with our modeling indicating a variation of slip rate from 9.2±0.5 mm/yr in the south to 4.3±0.5 mm/yr in the north. With current efforts to use InSAR to constrain strain rates globally, along-track measurements can fill a crucial gap in north-south sensitivity. With the achievement of that the burst overlap InSAR technique can measure azimuth motions across a slowly deforming area where the surface displacements are concentrated in the north-south component, this results in that, in the TOPS burst overlap region, the number of observations for a ground displacement can reach 3-4 times with different observational components. Measurement redundancy allows for the decomposition of observed velocities into three-dimensional components. In Chapter 5, I apply InSAR observations to estimate a deformation across the Chaman fault in both line-of-sight and along-track components using images from ascending and descending passes. I demonstrate an inversion to estimate the decomposed velocities. The algorithm employs a sparse GNSS network across the region to transform InSAR velocities to the GNSS reference frame. The results show that constraining the long-wavelength signal across the InSAR observations using GNSS data can mitigate the long-wavelength ionospheric disturbance that remains in the observations. The variation in slip rates across the Chaman fault is depicted by two transect profiles. The mean velocity profile at latitude 31˚N, where the Chaman fault is the only tectonic structure to accommodate strain, is consistent with 10.4±0.4 mm/yr of slip rate derived from the interseismic modeling. The optimal fault slip rate to fit with the mean velocity of the southern profile at latitude 29˚N is 5.5±0.8 mm/yr across the Chaman fault and 15.5±0.9 mm/yr across the parallel fault (the Ghazaband fault). I also demonstrate the benefits of high temporal sampling of InSAR observations with TOPS acquisition mode to study time-dependent surface deformation. I present the evolution of fault creeps, including seismic and aseismic fault slip along the Chaman fault during 2014-2018

Land uplift linked to managed aquifer recharge in the Perth Basin, Australia

While the link between groundwater extraction and land subsidence is well documented, observations of land uplift associated with groundwater replenishment are less so. In the Perth Basin, Western Australia, a programme of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) commenced in August 2017 and is designed to sustain levels of hydraulic head in aquifers valuable for extraction. Space-based TerraSAR-X satellite radar measurements were used to capture the first 3.5 years of MAR, providing an insight into the evolution of ground uplift in the Perth Basin that is spatially and temporally related to the MAR injection volumes and the injection-induced changes in hydraulic head. Significantly, the X-band InSAR has spatial coverage around the single injection point, and the time series begins prior to the start of the injection, rather than a generalised study of ground surface and aquifer change from multiple groundwater recharge contributions. This enables the observed ground uplift to be correlated with the time of initial injection, pause, then resumption with increased volumes. The X-band InSAR identified maximum displacements of up to 20±3 mm in the vicinity of the injection bores, but which subside when injection is paused. The spread of displacements from the injection site extends over 14 km southwards with the dispersion pattern identifying linear boundaries that sharply delineate displacements in the north-west and north-east. The extent of the region impacted by ground uplift is likely linked to the distribution of extraction bores and heterogeneities in the subsurface geology, including a persistent linear feature that has not yet been considered in hydrogeological models of the region. This article focusses on the immediate surface response to the MAR injection, and identifying the constraining physical features for the injected recharge, thus providing an additional insight into the challenging and complex Perth Basin. It also demonstrates the millimetric accuracy possible from X-band radar satellites that permits MAR volumes to be managed to avoid infrastructure damage that may undermine public confidence in the MAR program

The SAR Handbook: Comprehensive Methodologies for Forest Monitoring and Biomass Estimation

This Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) handbook of applied methods for forest monitoring and biomass estimation has been developed by SERVIR in collaboration with SilvaCarbon to address pressing needs in the development of operational forest monitoring services. Despite the existence of SAR technology with all-weather capability for over 30 years, the applied use of this technology for operational purposes has proven difficult. This handbook seeks to provide understandable, easy-to-assimilate technical material to remote sensing specialists that may not have expertise on SAR but are interested in leveraging SAR technology in the forestry sector

Ionospheric correction of interferometric SAR data with application to the cryospheric sciences

Thesis (Ph.D.) University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2018The ionosphere has been identified as an important error source for spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data and SAR Interferometry (InSAR), especially for low frequency SAR missions, operating, e.g., at L-band or P-band. Developing effective algorithms for the correction of ionospheric effects is still a developing and active topic of remote sensing research. The focus of this thesis is to develop robust and accurate techniques for ionospheric correction of SAR and InSAR data and evaluate the benefit of these techniques for cryospheric research fields such as glacier ice velocity tracking and permafrost deformation monitoring. As both topics are mostly concerned with high latitude areas where the ionosphere is often active and characterized by turbulence, ionospheric correction is particularly relevant for these applications. After an introduction to the research topic in Chapter 1, Chapter 2 will discuss open issues in ionospheric correction including processing issues related to baseline-induced spectrum shifts. The effect of large baseline on split spectrum InSAR technique has been thoroughly evaluated and effective solutions for compensating this effect are proposed. In addition, a multiple sub-band approach is proposed for increasing the algorithm robustness and accuracy. Selected case studies are shown with the purpose of demonstrating the performance of the developed algorithm. In Chapter 3, the developed ionospheric correction technology is applied to optimize InSAR-based ice velocity measurements over the big ice sheets in Greenland and the Antarctic. Selected case studies are presented to demonstrate and validate the effectiveness of the proposed correction algorithms for ice velocity applications. It is shown that the ionosphere signal can be larger than the actual glacier motion signal in the interior of Greenland and Antarctic, emphasizing the necessity for operational ionospheric correction. The case studies also show that the accuracy of ice velocity estimates was significantly improved once the developed ionospheric correction techniques were integrated into the data processing flow. We demonstrate that the proposed ionosphere correction outperforms the traditionally-used approaches such as the averaging of multi-temporal data and the removal of obviously affected data sets. For instance, it is shown that about one hundred multi-temporal ice velocity estimates would need to be averaged to achieve the estimation accuracy of a single ionosphere-corrected measurement. In Chapter 4, we evaluate the necessity and benefit of ionospheric-correction for L-band InSAR-based permafrost research. In permafrost zones, InSAR-based surface deformation measurements are used together with geophysical models to estimate permafrost parameters such as active layer thickness, soil ice content, and permafrost degradation. Accurate error correction is needed to avoid biases in the estimated parameters and their co-variance properties. Through statistical analyses of a large number of L-band InSAR data sets over Alaska, we show that ionospheric signal distortions, at different levels of magnitude, are present in almost every InSAR dataset acquired in permafrost-affected regions. We analyze the ionospheric correction performance that can be achieved in permafrost zones by statistically analyzing correction results for large number of InSAR data. We also investigate the impact of ionospheric correction on the performance of the two main InSAR approaches that are used in permafrost zones: (1) we show the importance of ionospheric correction for permafrost deformation estimation from discrete InSAR observations; (2) we demonstrate that ionospheric correction leads to significant improvements in the accuracy of time-series InSAR-based permafrost products. Chapter 5 summarizes the work conducted in this dissertation and proposes next steps in this field of research

Elevation and Deformation Extraction from TomoSAR

3D SAR tomography (TomoSAR) and 4D SAR differential tomography (Diff-TomoSAR) exploit multi-baseline SAR data stacks to provide an essential innovation of SAR Interferometry for many applications, sensing complex scenes with multiple scatterers mapped into the same SAR pixel cell. However, these are still influenced by DEM uncertainty, temporal decorrelation, orbital, tropospheric and ionospheric phase distortion and height blurring. In this thesis, these techniques are explored. As part of this exploration, the systematic procedures for DEM generation, DEM quality assessment, DEM quality improvement and DEM applications are first studied. Besides, this thesis focuses on the whole cycle of systematic methods for 3D & 4D TomoSAR imaging for height and deformation retrieval, from the problem formation phase, through the development of methods to testing on real SAR data. After DEM generation introduction from spaceborne bistatic InSAR (TanDEM-X) and airborne photogrammetry (Bluesky), a new DEM co-registration method with line feature validation (river network line, ridgeline, valley line, crater boundary feature and so on) is developed and demonstrated to assist the study of a wide area DEM data quality. This DEM co-registration method aligns two DEMs irrespective of the linear distortion model, which improves the quality of DEM vertical comparison accuracy significantly and is suitable and helpful for DEM quality assessment. A systematic TomoSAR algorithm and method have been established, tested, analysed and demonstrated for various applications (urban buildings, bridges, dams) to achieve better 3D & 4D tomographic SAR imaging results. These include applying Cosmo-Skymed X band single-polarisation data over the Zipingpu dam, Dujiangyan, Sichuan, China, to map topography; and using ALOS L band data in the San Francisco Bay region to map urban building and bridge. A new ionospheric correction method based on the tile method employing IGS TEC data, a split-spectrum and an ionospheric model via least squares are developed to correct ionospheric distortion to improve the accuracy of 3D & 4D tomographic SAR imaging. Meanwhile, a pixel by pixel orbit baseline estimation method is developed to address the research gaps of baseline estimation for 3D & 4D spaceborne SAR tomography imaging. Moreover, a SAR tomography imaging algorithm and a differential tomography four-dimensional SAR imaging algorithm based on compressive sensing, SAR interferometry phase (InSAR) calibration reference to DEM with DEM error correction, a new phase error calibration and compensation algorithm, based on PS, SVD, PGA, weighted least squares and minimum entropy, are developed to obtain accurate 3D & 4D tomographic SAR imaging results. The new baseline estimation method and consequent TomoSAR processing results showed that an accurate baseline estimation is essential to build up the TomoSAR model. After baseline estimation, phase calibration experiments (via FFT and Capon method) indicate that a phase calibration step is indispensable for TomoSAR imaging, which eventually influences the inversion results. A super-resolution reconstruction CS based study demonstrates X band data with the CS method does not fit for forest reconstruction but works for reconstruction of large civil engineering structures such as dams and urban buildings. Meanwhile, the L band data with FFT, Capon and the CS method are shown to work for the reconstruction of large manmade structures (such as bridges) and urban buildings

Modelling co- and post-seismic displacements revealed by InSAR, and their implications for fault behaviour

The ultimate goal of seismology is to estimate the timing, magnitude and potential spatial extent of future seismic events along pre-existing faults. Based on the rate-state friction law, several theoretical physical earthquake models have been proposed towards this goal. Tectonic loading rate and frictional properties of faults are required in these models. Modern geodetic observations, e.g. GPS and InSAR, have provided unprecedented near-field observations following large earthquakes. In theory, according to the frictional rate and state asperity earthquake model, velocity-weakening regions holding seismic motions on faults should be separated with velocity-strengthening regions within which faults slip only aseismically. However, early afterslip following the 2011 MW 9.1 Tohoku-Oki earthquake revealed from GPS measurements was largely overlaid on the historical rupture zones, which challenged the velocity weakening asperity model. Therefore, the performance of the laboratory based friction law in the natural events needs further investigation, and the factors that may affect the estimates of slip models through geodetic modelling should also be discussed systematically. In this thesis, several moderate-strong events were investigated in order to address this important issue. The best-fit co- and post-seismic slip models following the 2009 MW 6.3 Haixi, Qinghai thrust-slip earthquake determined by InSAR deformation time-series suggest that the maximum afterslip is concentrated in the same area as the coseismic slip model, which is similar to the patterns observed in the 2011 Japan earthquake. In this case, complex geometric asperity may play a vital role in the coseismic nucleation and postseismic faulting. The major early afterslip after the 2011 MW 7.1 Van mainshock, which was revealed by one COSMO-SkyMed postseismic interferogram, is found just above the coseismic slip pattern. In this event, a postseismic modelling that did not allow slip across the coseismic asperity was also tested, suggesting that the slip model without slip in the asperities can explain the postseismic observations as well as the afterslip model without constraints on slip in the asperities. In the 2011 MW 9.1 Tohoku-Oki earthquake, a joint inversion with the GRACE coseismic gravity changes and inland coseismic GPS observations was conducted to re-investigate the coseismic slip model of the mainshock. A comparison of slip models from these different datasets suggests that significant variations of slip models can be observed, particularly the locations of the maximum slips. The joint slip model shows that the maximum slip of ~42 m appears near the seafloor surface close to the Japan Trench. Meanwhile, the accumulative afterslip patterns (slip >2 m) determined in previous studies appear in spatial correlation with the Coulomb stress changes generated using the joint slip model. As a strike-slip faulting event, the 2011 MW 6.8 Yushu earthquake was also investigated through co- and post-seismic modelling with more SAR data than was used in previous study. Best slip models suggest that the major afterslip is concentrated in shallow parts of the faults and between the two major coseismic slip patterns, suggesting that the performance of the rate and state frictional asperity model is appropriate in this event. Other postseismic physical mechanisms, pore-elastic rebound and viscoelastic relaxation have also been examined, which cannot significantly affect the estimate of the shallow afterslip model in this study. It is believed that the shallow afterslip predominantly controlled the postseismic behaviour after the mainshock in this case. In comparison to another 21 earthquakes investigated using geodetic data from other studies, complementary spatial extents between co- and post-seismic slip models can be identified. The 2009 MW 6.3 Qinghai earthquake is an exceptional case, in which the faulting behaviours might be dominated by the fault structure (e.g. fault bending). In conclusion, the major contributions from this thesis include: 1) the friction law gives a first order fit in most of natural events examined in this thesis; 2) geometric asperities may play an important role in faulting during earthquake cycles; 3) significant uncertainties in co- and post-seismic slip models can appreciably bias the estimation of fault frictional properties; 4) new insights derived from each earthquake regarding their fault structures and complex faulting behaviours have been observed in this thesis; and (5) a novel package for geodetic earthquake modelling has been developed, which can handle multiple datasets including InSAR, GPS and land/space based gravity changes

Monitoring permafrost environments with Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensors

Permafrost occupies approximately 24% of the exposed land area in the Northern Hemisphere. It is an important element of the cryosphere and has strong impacts on hydrology, biological processes, land surface energy budget, and infrastructure. For several decades, surface air temperatures in the high northern latitudes have warmed at approximately twice the global rate. Permafrost temperatures have increased in most regions since the early 1980s, the averaged warming north of 60°N has been 1-2°C. In-situ measurements are essential to understanding physical processes in permafrost terrain, but they have several limitations, ranging from difficulties in drilling to the representativeness of limited single point measurements. Remote sensing is urgently needed to supplement ground-based measurements and extend the point observations to a broader spatial domain. This thesis concentrates on the sub-arctic permafrost environment monitoring with SAR datasets. The study site is selected in a typical discontinuous permafrost region in the eastern Canadian sub-Arctic. Inuit communities in Nunavik and Nunatsiavut in the Canadian eastern sub-arctic are amongst the groups most affected by the impacts of climate change and permafrost degradation. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) datasets have advantages for permafrost monitoring in the Arctic and sub-arctic regions because of its high resolution and independence of cloud cover and solar illumination. To date, permafrost environment monitoring methods and strategies with SAR datasets are still under development. The variability of active layer thickness is a direct indication of permafrost thermal state changes. The Differential SAR Interferometry (D-InSAR) technique is applied in the study site to derive ground deformation, which is introduced by the thawing/freezing depth of active layer and underlying permafrost. The D-InSAR technique has been used for the mapping of ground surface deformation over large areas by interpreting the phase difference between two signals acquired at different times as ground motion information. It shows the ability to detect freeze/thaw-related ground motion over permafrost regions. However, to date, accuracy and value assessments of D-InSAR applications have focused mostly on the continuous permafrost region where the vegetation is less developed and causes fewer complicating factors for the D-InSAR application, less attention is laid on the discontinuous permafrost terrain. In this thesis, the influencing factors and application conditions for D-InSAR in the discontinuous permafrost environment are evaluated by using X- band and L-band data. Then, benefit from by the high-temporal resolution of C-band Sentinel-1 time series, the seasonal displacement is derived from small baseline subsets (SBAS)-InSAR. Landforms are indicative of permafrost presence, with their changes inferring modifications to permafrost conditions. A permafrost landscape mapping method was developed which uses multi-temporal TerraSAR-X backscatter intensity and interferometric coherence information. The land cover map is generated through the combined use of object-based image analysis (OBIA) and classification and regression tree analysis (CART). An overall accuracy of 98% is achieved when classifying rock and water bodies, and an accuracy of 79% is achieved when discriminating between different vegetation types with one year of single-polarized acquisitions. This classification strategy can be transferred to other time-series SAR datasets, e.g., Sentinel-1, and other heterogeneous environments. One predominant change in the landscape tied to the thaw of permafrost is the dynamics of thermokarst lakes. Dynamics of thermokarst lakes are developed through their lateral extent and vertical depth changes. Due to different water depth, ice cover over shallow thermokarst ponds/lakes can freeze completely to the lake bed in winter, resulting in grounded ice; while ice cover over deep thermokarst ponds/lakes cannot, which have liquid water persisting under the ice cover all winter, resulting in floating ice. Winter ice cover regimes are related to water depths and ice thickness. In the lakes having floating ice, the liquid water induces additional heat in the remaining permafrost underneath and surroundings, which contributes to further intensified permafrost thawing. SAR datasets are utilized to detect winter ice cover regimes based on the character that liquid water has a remarkably high dielectric constant, whereas pure ice has a low value. Patterns in the spatial distribution of ice-cover regimes of thermokarst ponds in a typical discontinuous permafrost region are first revealed. Then, the correlations of these ice-cover regimes with the permafrost degradation states and thermokarst pond development in two historical phases (Sheldrake catchment in the year 1957 and 2009, Tasiapik Valley 1994 and 2010) were explored. The results indicate that the ice-cover regimes of thermokarst ponds are affected by soil texture, permafrost degradation stage and permafrost depth. Permafrost degradation is difficult to directly assess from the coverage area of floating-ice ponds and the percentage of all thermokarst ponds consisting of such floating-ice ponds in a single year. Continuous monitoring of ice-cover regimes and surface areas is recommended to elucidate the hydrological trajectory of the thermokarst process. Several operational monitoring methods have been developed in this thesis work. In the meanwhile, the spatial distribution of seasonal ground thaw subsidence, permafrost landscape, thermokarst ponds and their winter ice cover regimes are first revealed in the study area. The outcomes help understand the state and dynamics of permafrost environment.Der Permafrostboden bedeckt etwa 24% der exponierten Landfläche in der nördlichen Hemisphäre. Es ist ein wichtiges Element der Kryosphäre und hat starke Auswirkungen auf die Hydrologie, die biologischen Prozesse, das Energie-Budget der Landoberfläche und die Infrastruktur. Seit mehreren Jahrzehnten erhöhen sich die Oberflächenlufttemperaturen in den nördlichen hohen Breitengraden etwa doppelt so stark wie die globale Rate. Die Temperaturen der Permafrostböden sind in den meisten Regionen seit den frühen 1980er Jahren gestiegen. Die durchschnittliche Erwärmung nördlich von 60° N beträgt 1-2°C. In-situ-Messungen sind essentiell für das Verständnis der physischen Prozesse im Permafrostgelände. Es gibt jedoch mehrere Einschränkungen, die von Schwierigkeiten beim Bohren bis hin zur Repräsentativität begrenzter Einzelpunktmessungen reichen. Fernerkundung ist dringend benötigt, um bodenbasierte Messungen zu ergänzen und punktuelle Beobachtungen auf einen breiteren räumlichen Bereich auszudehnen. Diese Dissertation konzentriert sich auf die Umweltbeobachtung der subarktischen Permafrostböden mit SAR-Datensätzen. Das Untersuchungsgebiet wurde in einer typischen diskontinuierlichen Permafrostzone in der kanadischen östlichen Sub-Arktis ausgewählt. Die Inuit-Gemeinschaften in den Regionen Nunavik und Nunatsiavut in der kanadischen östlichen Sub-Arktis gehören zu den Gruppen, die am stärksten von den Auswirkungen des Klimawandels und Permafrostdegradation betroffen sind. Synthetische Apertur Radar (SAR) Datensätze haben Vorteile für das Permafrostmonitoring in den arktischen und subarktischen Regionen aufgrund der hohen Auflösung und der Unabhängigkeit von Wolkendeckung und Sonnenstrahlung. Bis heute sind die Methoden und Strategien mit SAR-Datensätzen für Umweltbeobachtung der Permafrostböden noch in der Entwicklung. Die Variabilität der Auftautiefe der aktiven Schicht ist eine direkte Indikation der Veränderung des thermischen Zustands der Permafrostböden. Die Differential-SAR-Interferometrie(D-Insar)-Technik wird im Untersuchungsgebiet zur Ableitung der Bodendeformation, die durch Auftau- / und Gefriertiefe der aktiven Schicht und des unterliegenden Permafrostbodens eingeführt wird, eingesetzt. Die D-InSAR-Technik wurde für Kartierung der Landoberflächendeformation über große Flächen verwendet, indem der Phasenunterschied zwischen zwei zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten als Bodenbewegungsinformation erfassten Signalen interpretiert wurde. Es zeigt die Fähigkeit, tau- und gefrierprozessbedingte Bodenbewegungen über Permafrostregionen zu detektieren. Jedoch fokussiert sich die Genauigkeit und Wertschätzung der D-InSAR-Anwendung bis heute hauptsächlich auf kontinuierliche Permafrostregion, wo die Vegetation wenig entwickelt ist und weniger komplizierte Faktoren für D-InSAR-Anwendung verursacht. Das diskontinuierliche Permafrostgelände wurde nur weniger berücksichtigt. In dieser Dissertation wurden die Einflussfaktoren und Anwendungsbedingungen für D-InSAR im diskontinuierlichen Permafrostgebiet mittels X-Band und L-Band Daten ausgewertet. Dann wurde die saisonale Verschiebung dank der hohen Auflösung der C-Band Sentinel-1 Zeitreihe von „Small Baseline Subsets (SBAS)-InSAR“ abgeleitet. Landformen weisen auf die Präsenz des Permafrosts hin, wobei deren Veränderungen auf die Modifikation der Permafrostbedingungen schließen. Eine Kartierungsmethode der Permafrostlandschaft wurde entwickelt, dabei wurde Multi-temporal TerraSAR-X Rückstreuungsintensität und interferometrische Kohärenzinformationen verwendet. Die Landbedeckungskarte wurde durch kombinierte Anwendung objektbasierter Bildanalyse (OBIA) und Klassifikations- und Regressionsbaum Analyse (CART) generiert. Eine Gesamtgenauigkeit in Höhe von 98% wurde bei Klassifikation der Gesteine und Wasserkörper erreicht. Bei Unterscheidung zwischen verschiedenen Vegetationstypen mit einem Jahr einzelpolarisierte Akquisitionen wurde eine Genauigkeit von 79% erreicht. Diese Klassifikationsstrategie kann auf andere Zeitreihen der SAR-Datensätzen, z.B. Sentinel-1, und auch anderen heterogenen Umwelten übertragen werden. Eine vorherrschende Veränderung in der Landschaft, die mit dem Auftauen des Permafrosts verbunden ist, ist die Dynamik der Thermokarstseen. Die Dynamik der Thermokarstseen ist durch Veränderungen der seitlichen Ausdehnung und der vertikalen Tiefe entwickelt. Aufgrund der unterschiedlichen Wassertiefen kann die Eisdecke über den flachen Thermokarstteichen/-seen im Winter bis auf den Wasserboden vollständig gefroren sein, was zum geerdeten Eis führt, während die Eisdecke über den tiefen Thermokarstteichen/-seen es nicht kann. In den tiefen Thermokarstteichen/-seen bleibt den ganzen Winter flüssiges Wasser unter der Eisdecke bestehen, was zum Treibeis führt. Das Wintereisdeckenregime bezieht sich auf die Wassertiefe und die Eisdicke. In den Seen mit Treibeis leitet das flüssige Wasser zusätzliche Wärme in den restlichen Permafrost darunter oder in der Umgebung, was zur weiteren Verstärkung des Permafrostauftauen beiträgt. Basiert auf den Charakter, dass das flüssige Wasser eine bemerkenswert hohe Dielektrizitätskonstante besitzt, während reines Eis einen niedrigen Wert hat, wurden die SAR Datensätzen zur Erkennung des Wintereisdeckenregimes verwendet. Zunächst wurden Schemen in der räumlichen Verteilung der Eisdeckenregimes der Thermokarstteiche in einer typischen diskontinuierlichen Permafrostregion abgeleitet. Dann wurden die Zusammenhänge dieser Eisdeckenregimes mit dem Degradationszustand des Permafrosts und der Entwicklung der Thermokarstteiche in zwei historischen Phasen (Sheldrake Einzugsgebiet in 1957 und 2009, Tasiapik Tal in 1994 und 2010) erforscht. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf, dass die Eisdeckenregimes der Thermokarstteiche von der Bodenart, dem Degradationszustand des Permafrosts und der Permafrosttiefe beeinflusst werden. Es ist schwer, die Permafrostdegradation in einem einzelnen Jahr direkt durch den Abdeckungsbereich der Treibeis-Teiche und die Prozentzahl aller aus solchen Treibeis-Teichen bestehenden Thermokarstteiche abzuschätzen. Ein kontinuierliches Monitoring der Eisdeckenregimes und -oberflächen ist empfehlenswert, um den hydrologischen Verlauf des Thermokarstprozesses zu erläutern. In dieser Dissertation wurden mehrere operativen Monitoringsmethoden entwickelt. In der Zwischenzeit wurden die räumliche Verteilung der saisonalen Bodentauabsenkung, die Permafrostlandschaft, die Thermokarstteiche und ihre Wintereisdeckenregimes erstmals in diesem Untersuchungsgebiet aufgedeckt. Die Ergebnisse tragen dazu bei, den Zustand und die Dynamik der Permafrostumwelt zu verstehen