Abductive Reasoning in WTO Law

Law is about many things, but at base it is about rights and obligations. That jural correlation is established and sustained by means of reasoning. We hold that an actor has a right or obligation by virtue of reasoning that classically occurs in one of two forms. An obligation creates a right by means of inductive logic that rests on the conviction of similar instances in the past and the need for proof. It can also create an obligation by means of deductive logic, that is, the process of reasoning from one or more statements (premises) that are used to reach a logically certain conclusion. The matched pairing of induction and deduction has been present in law and international law for a long time. The pairing is attractive because it infers a certain symmetry and logical harmony. What has intrigued some commentators surveying the dualism in legal reasoning is the possibility of some other form of reasoning, a third order of logic. A number of commentators are prone to regard deduction and induction as co-terminous, essentially exclusive and exhaustive. Some commentators, however, have identified something additional. It stands to reason that if there are conventionally two modes of logic operating in any one moment, then their combined operation across all moments should create a third thing, or tertium quid, as their product. This product, I suggest, is abductive reasoning. WTO law contains some marked examples of the interaction of deductive and inductive logic that culminate in abduction. The experience suggests that, at the end of the day, reasoning – and indeed knowledge – are provisional. It also explains some of the open-endedness of comments made in WTO decisions, such as the observation in Japan – Alcoholic Beverages II that “WTO rules are not so rigid or so inflexible as not to leave room for reasoned judgements in confronting the endless and ever-changing ebb and flow of real facts in real cases in the real world.

Investigating single-process and dual-process theories of transitive reasoning: Applying Signal Detection Theory and Signed Difference Analysis.

This item is only available electronically.According to influential dual-process theories, reasoning is driven by distinct Type 1 and 2 processing. Type 1 processing is characterised as fast, intuitive and heuristics based, while Type 2 processing is thought to be more effortful, deliberate and requires working memory. However, the dual-process view has faced an increasing amount of criticism over recent years. Single-process theories offer an alternative account, suggesting that reasoning across a range of contexts is reliant on a common assessment of inference strength. The current experiment tested the competing theories using a transitive reasoning task. Key factors relevant to dual-process accounts were manipulated, including premise integration time and working memory demands via premise ordering. Results showed that validity ratings were higher for valid than for invalid arguments, and for believable than for unbelievable conclusions. An interaction between premise ordering (unscrambled vs. scrambled premises) and validity was also observed. These results were consistent with dual-process theories, however, quantitative models were then compared to investigate whether the results were inconsistent with single-process theories. Signal detection theory was applied and dual- and single-process accounts were instantiated as two-dimensional and one-dimensional models, respectively. Model testing via signed difference analysis showed that the observed data do not rule out the simpler single-process, one-dimensional model. This suggests that such single-process models offer a viable account in explaining the underlying cognitive processing intransitive reasoning.Thesis (B.PsychSc(Hons)) -- University of Adelaide, School of Psychology, 202

Mathematical applications of inductive logic programming

Accepted versio

Inductive Logic Programming in Databases: from Datalog to DL+log

In this paper we address an issue that has been brought to the attention of the database community with the advent of the Semantic Web, i.e. the issue of how ontologies (and semantics conveyed by them) can help solving typical database problems, through a better understanding of KR aspects related to databases. In particular, we investigate this issue from the ILP perspective by considering two database problems, (i) the definition of views and (ii) the definition of constraints, for a database whose schema is represented also by means of an ontology. Both can be reformulated as ILP problems and can benefit from the expressive and deductive power of the KR framework DL+log. We illustrate the application scenarios by means of examples. Keywords: Inductive Logic Programming, Relational Databases, Ontologies, Description Logics, Hybrid Knowledge Representation and Reasoning Systems. Note: To appear in Theory and Practice of Logic Programming (TPLP).Comment: 30 pages, 3 figures, 2 tables

Wpływ cyfryzacji na międzynarodowe bezpieczeństwo finansowe w warunkach zrównoważonego rozwoju

The implementation of digital technologies in financial security allows you to automate and accelerate the processes of ensuring security. Electronic monitoring and analytics systems can quickly identify suspicious transactions and vulnerabilities, facilitating a prompt response to threats. That is why the topic of the current research is relevant and timely. The purpose of the study is to present the main components of the digitization process of international financial security in the context of sustainable development, with an emphasis on the formation of a comprehensive methodological approach to the analysis of the issue. The methods used in this research include the observation method to identify the main features of the digitization process of international financial security, the forecasting method to identify the main trends in the development of digital security, and the methods of analysis, synthesis, deduction, and induction to visually present the results of the research. Additionally, the graphic method is utilized to display a comprehensive methodological approach and illustrate the research results. During the course of the research, the basic components of the process of digitizing financial security were analysed, and an assessment of strengths and weaknesses was conducted. Additionally, opportunities and threats related to the process of digitizing international financial security were determined. The priority areas for the digitization of international financial security in the context of sustainable development have been identified. The main results of the study include the development of a comprehensive methodological approach to the process of digitalizing international financial security under conditions of sustainable development. The study also yields the following conclusions regarding the development of digitization: the utilization of analytical tools and artificial intelligence in financial security improves the accuracy of detecting fraud, money laundering, and other financial crimes; digital technologies facilitate access to financial services in remote and less developed regions; digital technologies enable cost optimization for ensuring financial security through automation and efficient resource utilization.Wdrożenie technologii cyfrowych w kontekście bezpieczeństwa finansowego pozwala zautomatyzować i przyspieszyć procesy zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa. Elektroniczne systemy monitorowania i analizy potrafią szybko identyfikować podejrzane transakcje i luki, ułatwiając szybką reakcję na zagrożenia. Dlatego tematyka artykułu  jest istotna i aktualna. Celem jest przedstawienie głównych elementów procesu cyfryzacji międzynarodowego bezpieczeństwa finansowego w kontekście zrównoważonego rozwoju, z naciskiem na ukształtowanie kompleksowego podejścia metodologicznego do analizy. W artykule wykorzystano następujące metody:  obserwacyjną, służącą identyfikacji głównych cech procesu cyfryzacji międzynarodowego bezpieczeństwa finansowego, metodę prognostyczną służącą identyfikacji głównych trendów rozwoju bezpieczeństwa cyfrowego oraz metody analizy, syntezy, dedukcji oraz indukcja wizualnej prezentacji wyników badań. Dodatkowo, metoda graficzna służy zobrazowaniu kompleksowego podejścia metodologicznego i zilustrowaniu wyników badań. W toku badań dokonano analizy podstawowych elementów procesu cyfryzacji bezpieczeństwa finansowego oraz dokonano oceny mocnych i słabych stron. Dodatkowo określono szanse i zagrożenia związane z procesem cyfryzacji międzynarodowego bezpieczeństwa finansowego. Zidentyfikowano priorytetowe obszary cyfryzacji międzynarodowego bezpieczeństwa finansowego w kontekście zrównoważonego rozwoju. Do głównych wyników badania należy opracowanie kompleksowego podejścia metodologicznego do procesu cyfryzacji międzynarodowego bezpieczeństwa finansowego w warunkach zrównoważonego rozwoju. Z badania wynikają także następujące wnioski dotyczące rozwoju cyfryzacji: wykorzystanie narzędzi analitycznych i sztucznej inteligencji w bezpieczeństwie finansowym poprawia skuteczność wykrywania oszustw, prania pieniędzy i innych przestępstw finansowych; technologie cyfrowe ułatwiają dostęp do usług finansowych w odległych i słabiej rozwiniętych regionach; technologie cyfrowe umożliwiają optymalizację kosztów w celu zapewnienia bezpieczeństwa finansowego poprzez automatyzację i efektywne wykorzystanie zasobów

Making the integration process work: The effectiveness of labor integration policies for refugee women in Norway

Globally, millions of refugees and migrants are crossing borders, seeking to flee social, economic, cultural, and political inequity and violence, and searching for a better life. Migrant and refugee women are considered a vulnerable group who may experience challenges in adapting to a new country. As the world continues to face the challenges of increasing refugee rates, strengthening and implementing the integration processes, especially labor integration, becomes essential for the host countries. Hence, the study aims to explore the difficulties and challenges refugee women face in their daily lives. This research was conducted in the municipality of Kristiansand in Norway. Ten participants from non-Western countries and NAV officials conducted semi-structured interviews to achieve this aim. The results of the findings were transcribed and analyzed using a mixed coding and thematic analysis. The study results showed that several challenges related to refugee women's integration into the market largely depend on human and social capital. Challenges such as language proficiency approval of the educational documents studies in Norway constituted human capital in their integration into the labor market. Despite efforts to overcome these challenges and acquire human capital still, most refugees still need the relevant job. Most participants believe that the introduction program offered by the government positively impacted labor integration. Nevertheless, social capital –regarding social networks and social-cultural participation- is also essential in job-seeking. Regarding strategies, most participants join social gatherings and social activities and master the native language. Along with this, most of them wish to explore them with the new society, giving years, and some initial steps were taken by them as work as their initial strategy, which facilitate their integration process actively on the society

Certifying and removing disparate impact

What does it mean for an algorithm to be biased? In U.S. law, unintentional bias is encoded via disparate impact, which occurs when a selection process has widely different outcomes for different groups, even as it appears to be neutral. This legal determination hinges on a definition of a protected class (ethnicity, gender, religious practice) and an explicit description of the process. When the process is implemented using computers, determining disparate impact (and hence bias) is harder. It might not be possible to disclose the process. In addition, even if the process is open, it might be hard to elucidate in a legal setting how the algorithm makes its decisions. Instead of requiring access to the algorithm, we propose making inferences based on the data the algorithm uses. We make four contributions to this problem. First, we link the legal notion of disparate impact to a measure of classification accuracy that while known, has received relatively little attention. Second, we propose a test for disparate impact based on analyzing the information leakage of the protected class from the other data attributes. Third, we describe methods by which data might be made unbiased. Finally, we present empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of our test for disparate impact and our approach for both masking bias and preserving relevant information in the data. Interestingly, our approach resembles some actual selection practices that have recently received legal scrutiny.Comment: Extended version of paper accepted at 2015 ACM SIGKDD Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Minin

Q-Squared in Policy: The Use of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods of Poverty Analysis in Decision-Making

This introductory essay for the journal Symposium presents an overview of issues related to ‘Q-Squared in Policy: the use of qualitative and quantitative methods of poverty analysis in decision-making’. We focus on issues raised on the supply side of data use, relating, inter alia to the informational content and policy usefulness of different types of data and analysis. These issues are grouped under the headings of: outcomes vs. processes, unpacking processes and thick and thin. We begin however, with a brief discussion of one aspect of the demand side, namely the politics of data use, given its centrality to the issues at hand.poverty, methods, mixed method research, policy process, methodological pluralism, impact assessment, International Relations/Trade, Political Economy,

Service-learning and critical thinking outcomes in general education courses

American educational reformers have noted an urgent need to develop and integrate pedagogical practices that promotes real world experiences that engage students in service and develops critical thinking skills of students. The reemergence of service-learning builds on an alternative vision of higher education that commenced with Dewey\u27s theories of experiential learning. To meet the need of developing critical thinking skills among today\u27s students, some researchers have proposed that integration of service-learning programs may produce a number of student learning outcomes, including critical thinking. Responding to calls for colleges to engage students in real world problems through service-learning, in 1985 Campus Compact a group of 3 colleges and universities was formed. Today there are 1,100 colleges and universities that are members of Campus Compact, educating over 6 million students. Notwithstanding these realities, there is scarce research examining the effects of service-learning on critical thinking in small sized public Campus Compact affiliated universities. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of service-learning on development of critical thinking among a sample of undergraduate students participating in service-learning courses at the Campus Compact-affiliated, public four-year, non-historically black university in Maryland with fewer than 5,000 students. This study utilized the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST) which provides clear delineation of subscales within critical thinking (analysis, evaluation, inference, and deductive and inductive reasoning). This study addressed two research questions: (RQ1) Does participation in general education courses that include service-learning result in gains in critical thinking by students in the courses? To answer (RQ1) statistical analysis were run with SPSS, (version 22). Aggregate data from pre-and post-test administrations were analyzed. The mean of the net difference in the scores, subscale scores, and total scores between the pre and post CCTST administrations were analyzed and examined by the Pre-Post test repeated measures main effect. Potential interaction of this factor with other variables (factors) was also examined by this ANOVA statistical analysis using SPSS (version 22). Results are considered statistically significant at the .05 alpha level. (RQ2) Are there significant differences in critical thinking outcomes for male students as compared to female students in general education courses that include service-learning? (RQ2) was answered by analyzing the aggregate data from the pre-post test administrations. The CCTST mean scores for male compared to female students in each of the CCTST subscales were analyzed. Results are considered statistically significant at the .05 alpha level. Conclusions (RQ1) The findings from the ANOVA regarding the CCTST skills/scales results revealed that there was a trend toward significance with post-CCTST results being higher than pre-CCTST results. The findings from the ANOVA (overall changes) did not demonstrate a trend toward significance. However, the results were consistent with the skills/scales ANOVA and in the same direction. These findings are consistent with what some researchers have found in that service learning can indeed promote critical thinking. (RQ2) The finding from the ANOVA regarding the skills/scales demonstrated statistically significant differences; however, these differences were primarily associated with the skills of Analysis and Deduction. The ANOVA (regarding the overall changes) revealed statistically significant differences between males and females in this study. While the gender effect was significant, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was also performed and revealed that whatever gender differences existed, they were not produced by the service-learning experience. The Significant Omnibus ANOVA regarding the skills/scales revealed the following ranked high to low: 1. Analysis, 2. Induction, 3. Inference, 4. Evaluation, and 5. Deduction. Recommendations for Practice Consider including assessment of the effect that service-learning has on Critical Thinking as a component of institutional assessment initiatives to inform ongoing development of best practices. Consider developing longitudinal assessment of the gains in critical thinking outcomes that students make over the time of their entire collegiate experience. Consider integrating curriculum and strategies that promote student development of a clear understanding of what constitutes critical thinking. This study also recommends that colleges and universities consider providing professional development to practitioners that promotes emphasis on critical thinking outcomes across service-learning experiences that are integrated across the curriculum. Recommendations for further Research Further research is recommended that examines the longitudinal cumulative effects that service learning has on critical thinking and other outcomes. Conduct further research which examines the effects of various types of service-learning experiences. Consider research examining diverse demographic institutions and populations that may further contribute to the body of knowledge of any cultural, demographic, or geographic effects of service-learning on critical thinking. Provide further research of the effects of service-learning on student critical thinking outcomes within individual disciplines. The increases in and sophistication of the CCTST skills found in this research suggests that further research be conducted that examines trends in student performance in each of the skill areas of: Analysis, Induction, Inference, Deduction, and Evaluation

A Survey on Discrimination Avoidance in Data Mining

ABSTRACT: For extracting useful knowledge which is hidden in large set of data, Data mining is a very important technology. There are some negative perceptions about data mining. This perception may contain unfairly treating people who belongs to some specific group. Classification rule mining technique has covered the way for making automatic decisions like loan granting/denial and insurance premium computation etc. These are automated data collection and data mining techniques. According to discrimination attributes if training data sets are biases then discriminatory decisions may ensue. Thus in data mining antidiscrimination techniques with discrimination discovery and prevention are included. It can be direct or indirect. When decisions are made based on sensitive attributes that time the discrimination is indirect. When decisions are made based on nonsensitive attributes which are strongly correlated with biased sensitive ones that time the discrimination is indirect. The proposed system tries to tackle discrimination prevention in data mining. It proposes new improved techniques applicable for direct or indirect discrimination prevention individually or both at the same time. Discussions about how to clean training data sets and outsourced data sets in such a way that direct and/or indirect discriminatory decision rules are converted to legitimate classification rules are done. New metrics to evaluate the utility of the proposed approaches are proposes and comparison of these approaches is also done