Increasing Self-Regulatory Energy Using an Internet-Based Training Application Delivered by Smartphone Technology

Self-control resources can be defined in terms of “energy.” Repeated attempts to override desires and impulses can result in a state of reduced self-control energy termed “ego depletion” leading to a reduced capacity to regulate future self-control behaviors effectively. Regular practice or “training” on self-control tasks may improve an individual's capacity to overcome ego depletion effectively. The current research tested the effectiveness of training using a novel Internet-based smartphone application to improve self-control and reduce ego depletion. In two experiments, participants were randomly assigned to either an experimental group, which received a daily program of self-control training using a modified Stroop-task Internet-based application delivered via smartphone to participants over a 4-week period, or a no-training control group. Participants assigned to the experimental group performed significantly better on post-training laboratory self-control tasks relative to participants in the control group. Findings support the hypothesized training effect on self-control and highlight the effectiveness of a novel Internet-based application delivered by smartphone as a practical means to administer and monitor a self-control training program. The smartphone training application has considerable advantages over other means to train self-control adopted in previous studies in that it has increased ecological validity and enables effective monitoring of compliance with the training program

The multiple pathways by which trait self-control predicts health behavior

Trait self-control, an individual's capacity to override impulses, suppress urges, and resist temptations, has been shown to be related to numerous adaptive outcomes [1], including participation in health behaviors [2, 3]. In their recent article, Hankonen et al. [4] demonstrated that trait self-control predicted healthy eating behaviors mediated by social–cognitive variables from the health action process approach. I commend Hankonen et al. for demonstrating these mediation effects; their results corroborate key effects in my recent model on the multiple pathways by which trait self-control relates to behavior [1] (Fig. 1). I would like to take this opportunity to highlight some additional interpretations and possible extensions of Hankonen et al.'s work

Effect of Emotion Regulation Training on Aggression, Rumination, and Self-control in Female Junior High School Students with Low Academic Performance

Background: Theoretical and empirical evidence indicates that emotions primarily influence students’ behavior during adolescence. This study aimed to determine the effect of emotion regulation training on aggression, rumination, and self-control in female students with low academic performance.Methods: This study was quasi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design and a control group. The statistical population included all female students with low academic performance in a junior high school in Tabriz, Iran during the first semester of the 2021-2022 academic year. Among them, 50 students were selected as the research sample by randomized cluster method and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups through the random coin toss method. The data were collected by Tangney ‘s self-control scale (SCS), Boss & Perry’s aggression questionnaire (AGQ), and Nolen-Hoeksema & Marrrow’s mental rumination scale (RRS). An emotion regulation training package was performed for the experimental group. The control group received no intervention. The data were analyzed by paired t-test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS version 27.Results: After applying the intervention, the mean scores of variables were 45.40±8.10, 40.52±10.79, and 74.52±9.87 in the experimental group and 40.48±6.11, 48.56±11.58, and 88.2±10.74 in the control group, respectively. Hence, emotion regulation training was effective in reducing aggression (P=0.001) and mental rumination (P=0.014) and increasing self-control (P=0.019).Conclusions: This study proved that emotion regulation training could effectively decrease aggression and mental rumination and increase self-control in students with low academic performance

Does self-control improve with practice? Evidence from a 6-week training program

Can self-control be improved through practice? Several studies have found that repeated practice of tasks involving self-control improves performance on other tasks relevant to self-control. However, in many of these studies, improvements after training could be attributable to methodological factors (e.g., passive control conditions). Moreover, the extent to which the effects of training transfer to real-life settings is not yet clear. In the present research, participants (N = 174) completed a 6-week training program of either cognitive or behavioral self-control tasks. We then tested the effects of practice on a range of measures of self-control, including lab-based and real-world tasks. Training was compared to both active and no-contact control conditions. Despite high levels of adherence to the training tasks, there was no effect of training on any measure of self-control. Trained participants did not, for example, show reduced ego depletion effects, become better at overcoming their habits, or report exerting more self-control in everyday life. Moderation analyses found no evidence that training was effective only among particular groups of participants. Bayesian analyses suggested that the data was more consistent with a null effect of training on self-control than with previous estimates of the effect of practice. The implication is that training self-control through repeated practice does not result in generalized improvements in self-control

Determinants and Promotion of Self-Regulated Learning in Educational Contexts: The Potential of Web-based and Attendance-based Courses

Self-regulated learning is an important skill to successfully study at school and university, but it is also of high importance for life-long learning (Commission of the European Community, 2000; Dignath & Büttner, 2008). The aim of this dissertation is to expand the knowledge about the trainability of self-regulated learning. To this end, the effectiveness of a web-based and an attendance-based self-regulated learning-training was compared, the role of individual characteristics as predictors of the effectiveness of self-regulated learning-training was examined, and the possibility of promoting the participation rate in voluntary self-regulated learning-training with minimal interventions was explored. Study I showed that students of an attendance-based and web-based course with the aim of fostering self-regulated learning were very satisfied with both course formats, self-regulated learning was considered useful for studying, and the subjective and objective increases in learning were high. Furthermore, the findings of Study I suggest that self-regulated learning can be fostered in the web-based course as effectively as in the attendance-based course as there were no group differences. Moreover, the findings suggest that it is of relevance to differentiate between two training phases that promote different processes: A theory phase that fosters declarative metacognitive knowledge on self-regulated learning and an implementation phase where strategies of self-regulated learning are practiced. The question of whether the effectiveness of a self-regulated learning-training intervention differs between participants depending on their individual characteristics was investigated in Study II. Results revealed that individual differences in personality – but not motivational factors – were related to the gain of self-regulated learning through respective training in a university context. More precisely, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience significantly predicted increases in self-regulated learning, however, with varying importance for the two different phases of the training (theory versus implementation) and the training format (attendance-based versus web-based). Conscientiousness was related to both theory and implementation phases as well as both formats (attendance-based and web-based), agreeableness was only related to the theory phase and to the attendance-based format, and openness was as well only related to the attendance-based format but only in the implementation phase. Finally, while Study I and II were conducted at university, Study III focused on high-school students and addressed the question of whether the participation rate in voluntary web-based self-regulated learning-training can be promoted by minimal interventions on utility value and implementation intention. Unexpectedly, the minimal interventions had no effect on the participation rate, suggesting that these interventions are not effective per se, but rather context dependent. Apart from that, students’ expectation of success and average grade score proved to be positive predictors of training participation, which was also shown by latent profile-analyses. This suggests that initial motivation has an impact on voluntary training participation. In conclusion, the findings of the studies indicate that self-regulated learning can be fostered in web-based and attendance-based formats, that training success of self-regulated learning is related to personality factors, and that motivation plays a role concerning training participation. This dissertation significantly contributes to previous research by showing that both a theory phase and an implementation phase are crucial when employing a training program, and that the extent of training success seems to be affected by personality traits. Moreover, the findings give reason to evaluate critically in which contexts minimal interventions are successful. This dissertation has a number of implications for theory and for future research and it can also provide practical advice for educational contexts

Relationship Between Autonomous Motivation and Ego-Depletion

Previous research has shown that exerting self-control on a demanding task can impair performance on a subsequent demanding self-control task. This phenomenon is known as ego-depletion; however, its underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Notable gaps in the literature exist regarding whether participants’ motivation levels can attenuate the depletion effect, and whether trait self-control is related. Drawing from the process model of depletion and the self-determination theory, the goal of the study was to examine whether motivational incentives in the form of autonomy can impact performance on tasks in an ego-depleted state, and the potential relationship of trait self-control. Amazon Mechanical Turk was utilized to conduct this experimental quantitative study with a 2 (ego-depletion: yes or no) x 2 (autonomous reward motivation: incentivized or nonincentivized) between-subjects factorial design. The effects of an autonomous motivational incentive were compared with the effects of no incentive on a convenience sample of online participants (N = 211), half of whom performed a task designed to be depleting of self-control resources, and half of whom performed a non-depleting task instead. Multivariate ANCOVAs showed no significant differences for performance on a subsequent self-control task for any of the experimental groups, and no co-variance of trait self-control was found (as measured by the Brief Self-Control Scale). This study will contribute to social change by increasing understanding of the factors contributing to self-control. This knowledge will be useful to anyone intending to strengthen their own willpower and achieve their goals, and may enable practitioners to better assist clients struggling with addictions and other maladaptive behaviors

Digital Behaviour Change Interventions to Break and Form Habits

Digital behaviour change interventions, particularly those using pervasive computing technology, hold great promise in supporting users to change their behaviour. However, most interventions fail to take habitual behaviour into account, limiting their potential impact. This failure is partly driven by a plethora of overlapping behaviour change theories and related strategies that do not consider the role of habits. We critically review the main theories and models used in the research to analyse their application to designing effective habitual behaviour change interventions. We highlight the potential for Dual Process Theory, modern habit theory, and Goal Setting Theory, which together model how users form and break habits, to drive effective digital interventions. We synthesise these theories into an explanatory framework, the Habit Alteration Model, and use it to outline the state of the art. We identify the opportunities and challenges of habit-focused interventions.</jats:p

Self-control depletion and exercise performance: mechanisms of the effect

This thesis is presented as a collection of four studies in which the mechanisms underpinning the effects of prior self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance are examined. Considerable evidence has demonstrated that the initial exertion of self-control on one task impairs performance on a subsequent physical task, also requiring self-control. However, more sport specific performance tasks are required to improve the ecological validity of self-control exertion research. For example, no research to date has investigated the impact of self-control exertion on repeated running sprint task performance. Moreover, research into the mechanisms that underpin the effect is limited and inconsistent. Individual's perceptions of pain and motivation have been suggested as possible mechanisms, however, further research is required to establish these, and other, mechanisms explaining why self-control interferes with subsequent performance on a physical task. Building on this work, individuals' perceptions of boredom have also been suggested as a potential mechanism, however, boredom is yet to be empirically investigated. Finally, considering the negative effects of self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance, there is a requirement for intervention strategies. In particular, the potential for a goal priming intervention to attenuate the effects of prior self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance has not been investigated to date. The current thesis aims to address these limitations and extend the literature. Chapter Two examined the effects of self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance, as well as the mechanisms underpinning the effect under a meta-analytical lens. The meta-analysis highlighted significant gaps in the literature, particularly regarding performance task type and a lack of research into the underpinning mechanisms. Therefore, Chapter Three, Four, and Five employed a sequential-task paradigm to address these gaps in the literature. Specifically, Chapter Three examined the potential effects of prior self-control exertion on subsequent repeated running sprint performance. Chapter Four investigated perceptions of boredom as a novel underpinning mechanism that may explain why self-control exertion affects subsequent physical performance. Finally, Chapter Five examined whether a goal priming intervention could attenuate any decrements in performance on a subsequent physical task due to initial self-control exertion. Overall, the findings of this thesis support the notion that the prior exertion of self-control results in performance decrements during subsequent physical performance tasks. In addition, initial perceptions of pain, motivation, and self-efficacy are suitable underpinning mechanisms of the effect. More specifically, Chapter Two (meta-analysis) found that self-control exertion had a medium sized negative effect on subsequent physical performance (g = −0.55). In addition, a small increase in initial perceptions of pain (g = 0.18) and a medium sized reduction in self-efficacy (g = −0.48) following self-control exertion were revealed. However, performance task type and study design must be carefully considered as these moderators can influence results. Chapter Three found that prior self-control exertion does not influence subsequent repeated running sprint task performance (all p > 0.05). Furthermore, Chapter Four found a negative effect of self-control exertion on wall-sit task performance (p = 0.05). In addition, self-control exertion resulted in higher overall perceptions of pain (p = 0.02) and reduced overall (p = 0.01) and initial (p = 0.02) motivation. Perceptions of boredom did not seem to be an underpinning mechanism (p = 0.79); however, initial self-control tasks may increase boredom and should be controlled for. Finally, Chapter Five found that a goal priming intervention did not attenuate the effects of prior self-control exertion on a subsequent physical task (p = 0.28). In summary, the current thesis has offered evidence for the negative impact of prior self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance, as well as the potential for self-efficacy and motivation to be underpinning mechanisms to explain the effect. However, findings may be due to physical task type. Future research should continue to investigate the decision-making processes required following the exertion of self-control, as these may influence the performance results observed during subsequent physical task performance