From Common Operational Picture to Common Situational Understanding : A Framework for Information Sharing in Multi-Organizational Emergency Management

Complex emergencies such as natural disasters are increasing in frequency and scope, in all regions of the world. These emergencies have devastating impacts on people, property, and the environment. Responding to these events and reducing their impact requires that emergency management organizations (EMOs) collaborate in their operations. Complex emergencies require extraordinary efforts from EMOs and often should be handled beyond ordinary routines and structures. Such operations involving multiple stakeholders are typically characterized by inadequate information sharing, decision-making problems, limited situational awareness (SA), and lack of common situational understanding. Despite a high volume of research on these challenges, evaluations from complex disasters and large-scale exercises document that there are still several unsolved issues related to information sharing and the development of common situational understanding. Examples here include fulfillment of heterogeneous information needs, employment of different communication tools and processes with limited interoperability, and information overload resulting from a lack of mechanisms for filtering irrelevant information. Multi-organizational emergency management is an established area of research focusing on how to successfully collaborate and share information for developing common situational understanding. However, the level of complexity and situational dependencies between the involved EMOs create challenges for researchers. An important element for efficient collaboration and information sharing is building and maintaining a common operational picture (COP). Sharing important information is a key element in emergency management involving several EMOs, and both static and dynamic information must be accessible to perform tasks effectively during emergency response. To be proactive and mitigate the emergency impacts requires up-to-date information, both factual information via the COP and the ability to share interpretations and implications through using a communication system for rapid verbal negotiation. The overall research objective is to investigate how stakeholders perceive and develop SA and COP, and to explore and understand key requirements for stakeholders to develop a common situational understanding in complex multi-organizational emergency management.publishedVersio

CHAIN OF EVENTS: MITIGATING ACTIVE SHOOTERS AND HOSTILE EVENTS

Agencies responding to an active shooter/hostile event (ASHE) need to recognize opportunities to capitalize on one another’s actions. This thesis answers the research question: What shared action points can law enforcement and fire rescue personnel identify, prior to an incident, to improve response coordination and collaboration? The research included ASHE case analysis, agency policy analysis, and a focus group of law enforcement and fire rescue subject matter experts. I conducted the research through the lens of the recognition primed decision making (RPDM) framework because it specifically relates to decisions made under severe time constraints. The policy analysis showed that agencies expect shared action points to be recognized and acted on. The case analysis found that shared action points similar to those found in policy occur during responses. The focus group participants provided insights into actions expected of responders and actions directed in policy. The subsequent mitigation action chain conceptual model and identified shared action points can be incorporated into a training program to help ensure critical on-scene interactions and improve incident outcomes.Civilian, Green Bay Metro Fire DepartmentApproved for public release. Distribution is unlimited

Organizational Support for Critical Incident Wellness and Crime Scene Investigators’ Perceived Effectiveness

Law enforcement agencies are frequently studied for officer wellness, yet research is limited in the influence of organizational support for the psychological wellness of crime scene investigators exposed to tragic scenes. The purpose of this quantitative study was to examine the perceptions of job performance effectiveness of crime scene investigators based on organizational support through the provision of stress management resources. The theoretical framework of organizational support theory and management theory formed the basis of the investigation into the contributing elements of job performance. Data were collected through surveys from 92 crime scene investigators, of whom 77 were civilians and 15 were sworn, primarily representing Florida law enforcement agencies. Multiple regression analyses assessed the relationships between the variables of perceived organizational support, stress management training, trauma exposure, tenure, and education to determine factors influencing perceived job effectiveness. The regression analysis results indicated that tenure was a statistically significant determinant of perceived job effectiveness (p = .036) among the predictor variables. The results were consistent with prior explorations of the influential nature of perceived organizational support and demographic characteristics as predictors of job effectiveness. The statistical model applied was appropriate for the theoretical framework examined. Implications for positive social change include recommendations to policy makers to increase resources to law enforcement agencies for the wellness of crime scene investigators and the establishment of a critical incident protocol that, if provided as a preventive measure, could impact public safety and perceptions of organizational support

AFTER THE ATTACK: POLICE PERSPECTIVES ON PROMOTING RESILIENCY FOLLOWING THE 2015 SAN BERNARDINO ATTACK

The purpose of this study was to provide an exploration of the experiences and perceptions of law enforcement officers who responded to the December 2nd, 2015 San Bernardino Attacks, specifically addressing what interventions and factors they found helpful in promoting their well-being following the attack. To do this, eight semi-structured interviews were held with officers who either were involved in the scene at the Inland Regional Center or were involved in the shoot-out with the attackers later that day. From these interviews several themes emerged, including: the importance of social support, critique of department responses, unique characteristics of law enforcement culture, and stigma against seeking mental health treatment among law enforcement officers. Recommendations based on these findings for social work practice, law enforcement departments, and further research were discussed

From common operational picture to common situational understanding: An analysis based on practitioner perspectives

The concepts of Situational Awareness (SA) and Common Operational Picture (COP) are closely related and well-acknowledged to be crucial factors for effective emergency management. In multi-agency operations, such as extreme weather events, the involved first responders manage the event with different mandates, objectives, and tools which can make it challenging to build a COP. Effective collaboration requires a common situational understanding, based on knowledge about each other’s responsibilities and tasks, mutual respect and trust, as well as common communication tools for emergency communication and information sharing. This paper argues that the COP serves as a basis for deciding on further action, and thus represents a first stage in the process of establishing common situational understanding among the involved actors. The empirical basis for the study includes interviews with Norwegian emergency management stakeholders, analysis of audio-logs, and review of public documents. Based on the analysis we present a framework comprising activities and processes involved in establishing a COP as a basis for common situational understanding.publishedVersio

Paramedics and the chance of a better outcome: Psychological health and safety and employer liability

Canadian paramedics experience high rates of work-related PTSD and suicide. Relevant scholarship has claimed that paramedics often experience more stress from a lack of support within the workplace than from the traumatic nature of their work. The purpose of this study was to determine what underlying legislation might support the implementation of comprehensive support programs for Canadian paramedics. In-depth interviews were conducted with paramedics and key actors from paramedic services in Saskatoon, Canada and Queensland, Australia; a workplace with an emerging response to paramedic mental health and one with an established, multi-modal, comprehensive health promotion program, respectively. The Saskatoon sample provided narratives demonstrating a lack of support in the workplace as the primary cause of stress while the Brisbane sample presented as satisfied with their support services and unconcerned with PTSD and suicide. The major difference between the two cases was the employers’ level of assertiveness in promoting social support within the workplace, owing to underlying occupational health and safety law. Australia’s primary duty of care model supports a culture where the employer is primarily responsible for the prevention of work-related injuries. In Canada, occupational health and safety law does not hold any actor primarily responsible for injury prevention, yet psychological health and safety in the workplace is an emerging liability issue for employers. This thesis explains Canada’s first responders’ mental health crisis as a sociopolitical problem rather than a collection of individual tragedies. Much can be learned from Queensland case study where the employer was mandated to actively promote psychological health and safety within the workplace rather than ad hoc PTSD and suicide intervention programs. Finally, the struggle to respond to high call volumes was among the top psychological health concerns for all participants, demonstrating that resourcing levels need to be addressed in order to fully promote better health outcomes

An Examination of the Individual and Contextual Characteristics Associated with Active Shooter Events

In recent years, the US has experienced a substantial number of mass shooting incidents. This type of shooting incident has been termed “active shooter event” and encompasses shootings that occur in school settings as well as public settings and workplace venues. Much of the recent published literature addressing active shooter events appears to focus on tactical issues, such as training for and responding to this type of incident. Very little research, however, has examined the individual and contextual characteristics associated with active shooter events. In the current study we examine a number of factors related to 88 active shooting events involving 92 perpetrators. Our findings indicate a history of psychological and behavioral issues reported in more than 50% of the active shooters studied. In addition, 60% of shooters had evidence of additional stressors beyond those associated with psychological and behavioral issues. These findings highlight the need to continue to explore potential risk factors associated with this form of violence

The Silent Disease of Law Enforcement Officers: The Stigma of Mental Health in Law Enforcement Identity and Mental Health Outcomes

The purpose of this transcendental phenomenological study was to understand the organizational and personal factors affecting law enforcement officers\u27 willingness to seek mental health assistance following a stressful/traumatic experience from the perspective of the law enforcement officer. The effect of stigmas associated with mental health-seeking behaviors and its impact on the reluctance of law enforcement officers\u27 willingness to seek assistance is the central phenomenon of this study. Study participants included twelve active and retired law enforcement officers from the northern part of the state of Minnesota in an effort to elicit rich narratives and lived experience from this target population. Data were collected through the uses of semistructured one-on-one individual interviews. Great efforts have been made in the law enforcement community to bring awareness to and foster the mental health needs of law enforcement officers. The law enforcement community joined forces with the mental health community, in an attempt to counter the stress and trauma associated with the law enforcement profession

The Police Response to Active Shooter Incidents

There have been many active shooter incidents in the United States since Columbine, and police agencies continue to modify their policies and training to reflect the lessons that are learned from each new tragedy. This report summarizes the state of the field as of 2014. The Police Executive Research Forum conducted research on these issues and held a one-day Summit in Washington, D.C., in which an overflow crowd of more than 225 police chiefs and other officials discussed the changes that have occurred, and where they are going from here

Resilience Training for Firefighters: A Proposed Approach

In the course of doing their jobs, firefighters unavoidably experience stressful and even traumatic situations that can lead to emotional and behavioral health problems including anxiety, burnout, depression, alcoholism, substance abuse, post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicide. Current approaches to addressing these problems tend to focus on assistance and treatment that takes place following traumatic events, or after symptoms emerge. While these important efforts must continue, the science of positive psychology can suggest a more proactive approach through the development of resilience skills, which prepare individuals to resist the negative effects of stressful events and situations, and support overall well-being. Resilience training teaches thinking and coping skills that can be employed on the job as well as at home and in other circumstances. Existing evidence-based resilience training programs used in military and educational settings are reviewed, as well as literature addressing factors specific to firefighter and emergency responder populations. A firefighter resilience training program is recommended that takes into account the fire service culture and focuses on developing increased self-efficacy through increased social support and flexible, accurate thinking habits that promote optimism. Suggested interventions and measures are presented, along with ideas for fostering an environment of resilience within the fire department