What About “He Said, He Said?" The Effect of Rape Myth Acceptance and Extra-Legal Factors on Blame Attributions

abstract: Many authors have shown that "real victim," "real rape," and traditional gender role stereotypes affect how people attribute blame to victims and perpetrators of sexual assault, and that jury decisions in rape cases are likewise influenced by extralegal factors, such as how much the victim resisted. Most studies only focus on the acceptance of rape myths and stereotypes about female victims, while myths and stereotypes about male victims are largely ignored. It is unknown how female rape myth acceptance (FRMA) and male rape myth acceptance (MRMA) may differently affect victim and perpetrator blame attributions. Whether the juror influences the effect of extra-legal factors on rape perceptions is also unknown. Using a randomized vignette design, the current study investigates 1) the effect of rape myth acceptance and gender attitudes on victim and perpetrator blame attributions, 2) how blame attributions differ by victim gender, level of resistance, and victim-perpetrator relationship, and 3) how the juror role influences the effects of rape myth acceptance and extra-legal factors on blame attributions. Results show that FRMA and MRMA are both positively associated with victim blame and negatively associated with perpetrator blame, that male victims are blamed more than female victims, and that jury membership does not influence the effect of extra-legal factors on blame attributions. Victim resistance and victim-perpetrator relationship also affected rape perceptions in unexpected ways. Implications for rape prevention programing, police and prosecutor decision-making, and jury selection are discussed.Dissertation/ThesisMasters Thesis Criminology and Criminal Justice 201

Perceptions of Masculinity and Femininity in Online Dating Profiles of Men: Intersections With Race

Many people currently find a dating partner online, which at many websites involves viewing the profiles of several users and deciding which to pursue. Considerable social scientific research has studied this new way of seeking dating partners. The purpose of this thesis study was to examine how people believe online dating site users would perceive a man on these sites based on the profile characteristics mentioned regarding femininity and masculinity in combination with a race-based filter (Black or white). These variables were manipulated within a Qualtrics survey with four vignette hypothetical profiles (a white man with a masculine profile, a Black man with a masculine profile, a white man with a feminine profile, and a Black man with a feminine profile). The participants were obtained from three major sources: students in certain sociology classes at a Midwestern public university who were offered extra credit to take the survey, a post made on my social media page, and MTurk, a survey sharing site through Amazon. Each participant was shown one profile at random and told to imagine that the profile they received was posted on a dating website and to answer the questions that followed by thinking of how both heterosexual women and gay men would perceive the profile (one at a time). A final section included questions to measure how the participants would respond to the target. I analyzed those data with multiple Independent t-tests, two ANOVA tests, and one repeated measures-mixed ANOVA. Participants perceived masculine targets as being more sexually attractive and as desired more for a short-term relationship than feminine targets, whereas the feminine target was perceived as having higher friendship attraction than the masculine target. The research also showed that the masculine and Black target was seen as more trustworthy, more likely to be contacted by the users, and more desirable for long-term relationships than the feminine and Black target, whereas the feminine and white target was perceived as more trustworthy, more likely to be contacted by the users, and more desirable for long-term relationships than the masculine and white target. This study will help us understand how people expect online dating site users would judge male users based on the male user’s levels of femininity/masculinity co-constructed alongside race

Understanding Attitudes Towards Interracial Relationships Among College Students

The number of interracial couples in the United States remains low in today’s society. This study uses qualitative interviews and quantitative survey data from Illinois Wesleyan students to investigate the motivations, perceptions, and experiences of those who are currently, or were previously, in an interracial relationship. I also explore the attitudes of those who have not dated interracially, and the media’s impact on perceptions of interracial couples. I find that those who dated interracially did not see race as a deciding factor, but instead focused on personality, cultural similarities and differences, and appearances. Many students saw religion, peer and family support, and socioeconomic status as factors that influence the likelihood of dating interracially. Contradictory statements were made on the portrayal of interracial couples in the media; however, most concluded that the media images are generally positive. Better understanding these perceptions among current college students may have implications for future trends

The Effects of Communication, Gender, and Sexism on Dating Initiations

The purpose of this study was to increase understanding of the initial screening process that occurs during dating interactions, and to measure the perceptions of different communication styles that individuals use during such interactions. A review of current literature focused on attractiveness of potential mates, ambivalent sexism theory, gender stereotypes, and communication theory. The present study examined how individuals view others’ approaches in initial dating interactions, and which of these approaches are most effective for increasing the target’s interest in spending time with the pursuer. A pilot study involving 45 undergraduate psychology students from Western Kentucky University was conducted to evaluate the validity of the Dating Initiation Questionnaire (DIQ), which was created for this study. In the final study, one hundred and fifty two undergraduate psychology students from Western Kentucky University completed measures of sexism, social desirability, and dating initiation preference. Results showed that both communication theory and ambivalent sexism theory were relevant in dating initiations. Consistent with previous communication research, assertive communication was rated as more effective than aggressive and passive communication in the initial interactions that occur in heterosexual dating initiations. This suggests it is best to use assertive communication as a first choice in dating interactions. Further analyses showed that females were more likely to rate assertive and passive initiations as more effective than aggressive dating initiations, while males were more likely than females to rate aggressive initiations as more effective than passive initiations, and to rate aggressive initiations as more effective than assertive initiations. Stronger ambivalent sexist beliefs were associated with higher ratings for aggressive dating initiations. Therefore, individuals who held negative attitudes toward non-traditional women and positive attitudes toward gender stereotypical women preferred aggressive dating initiations. Such individuals may approach others in an aggressive manner. One could argue that, to prevent such harassment, individuals should be educated about communication styles and gender equality. Future research should focus on applying such interventions to males and females, and on revising the intervention to suit individuals with sexist beliefs toward women and men

The Impact of Social Media on Non-Monosexuals’ Responses to Discrimination: A Co-Cultural Approach

This research examines how social media consumption habits predict non-monosexuals’ (people who are neither gay nor straight) communication with dominant groups. Using survey methodology (n=716), the study applies co-cultural theory to evaluate how they respond to discrimination. The findings of this study indicate that non-monosexuals are heavy users of social media and that it plays a significant role in their perceptions of their environment. Several variables including their field of experience, ability, and costs and rewards, can predict non-monosexuals’ communication choices and social media moderates those relationships. Overall, the sample preferred an assertive strategy and an outcome of accommodation, indicating that they hope for equality and use diplomatic conversational tactics to achieve it. Implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research are also included

Asexual People’s Experience with Microaggressions

Asexuality as a non-heterosexual identity is a target of microaggressions similar to those experienced by other non-heterosexual identities. In this study asexual participants reported experiencing invalidation, sexual normativity/romantic normativity, pathologization, ignorance, general LGBTQIAP+ prejudice, dehumanization, rejection, disappointment, infantilization, tokenization, sexual threats/pressure, and sexual assault/corrective rape. These microaggressions came from various sources; family, partners/potential partners, friends/acquaintances, medical professionals, media, school systems, other LGBTQIAP+ people, and religious institutions. These led to emotional, cognitive, and behavioral reactions. Participants also reported negative mental health outcomes they linked to these microaggressions

Romantic Attraction towards Men and Women Consistent with Gender Stereotypes: The Role of System and Personal Control Threat

During times of economic and political uncertainty, people often feel a lack of control and security. Three studies demonstrate that the motive for a sense of control can increase the desire for a romantic partner who is likely to provide a sense of control. When the sociopolitical system is threatened, men are more interested in warm, caring, submissive women consistent with ‘benevolent’ sexist ideals of femininity (Study 1). Women, on the other hand, are less interested in men consistent with the masculine stereotype as assertive, independent, and achievement-oriented to the extent that a relationship with these men can diminish their sense of control (Study 2). Threatening beliefs in personal control produced the same effect on women’s romantic interest in stereotypically masculine men, which supports the observed effects of system threat as due to motive for a sense of control. But when women perceive these men as benevolent, external sources of control, they remain interested in these men when threatened (Study 3). Together, the studies suggest that romantic relationships can be a means of establishing a sense of control following economic and political uncertainty

Showcasing Self: An Intersectional Analysis Of Body Type Presentation In Online Daters

Using data collected from the online dating site Match.com, this paper performs a content analysis examining the relationships between race, gender, and sexuality as both independent variables and as intersections on impression management strategies in online dating. Impression management strategies form a foundational core of how people interact with others in social situations. This analysis focuses on impression management strategies by examining how people advertise their body type in a public arena. Analysis also draws upon the types of bodies these people desire in an ideal date, as a second method of looking at the norms surrounding the ideal body type for a given group. Drawing upon intersectionality theories, this paper looks at potential biases in previous online dating literature towards white heterosexuals. Taking this idea into account, this analysis utilizes 892 profiles from major urban centers within the United States, approximately equal in the numbers of whites and blacks, gay/lesbians and heterosexuals, and men and women, in order to examine underrepresented populations in previous online dating literature. Findings show that body type norms based on intersectional race and gender literature appear to be more accurate predictors of proclaimed body type than only those using gender literatures. In addition, sexuality, race, and gender interactions appear to have an effect in the terminology an online dater uses in describing both themselves and the types of bodies desired in ideal dates. Contrary to prior online dating and gender literature, findings also indicate a greater willingness of women compared to men to use terms that indicate their body might be overweight. Theoretical explanations look at how positions relative to hegemonic power may be an overriding influence in the importance of body type impression management strategies

Unpredictable love? How uncertainty influences partner preferences

Do uncertain events (such as COVID-19) influence the types of partners that males and females feel attracted to in (online) dating? Four studies show that partner preferences are not fixed but dynamic and depend on people's temporary psychological state of uncertainty. Specifically, we show that when facing uncertainty, women are more attracted to men with tougher versus more tender facial features, whereas men are more attracted to women with more tender versus tougher facial features. This effect attenuates under certainty. We show furthermore that uncertainty (but not certainty) increases the preference of stereotypical partner types (caring vs. strong), which can be inferred from these facial features. These results are replicated with different facial stimuli and when uncertainty is activated due to COVID-19, pointing to the timeliness and generalizability of the findings. These findings have implications for our understanding of how and why partner preferences are influenced by uncertainty

When an individual’s best friend begins dating someone new: what factors shape how that individual responds?

Powerful emotional responses and conflicts can arise between close friends when one of them begins to romantically see someone new. The addition of a third-party dating partner to an existing friendship is fraught with social consequences and complex negotiations of time (Larson & Richards, 1991; Roth & Parker, 2001). For example, availability for activities once shared by close friends now must be moderated by the amount of time needed to spend with the new partner. This can lead to strong, negative feelings as the friends struggle to make the adjustment and accommodate their friendship\u27s changing status. The emotion of jealousy is focused on within this study. It is an emotion that is aroused when individuals feel threatened in a close relationship (Lazarus, 1991). Within this study, a pool of participants were equally divided among those who are male and female, and those who are straight and non-straight completed various questionnaires assessing their attachment style, feelings of jealousy aroused, the type of relationship they have with their best friend (cross-sex vs. same-sex), and their own relationship status (unattached/single vs. attached/in a relationship). The design of this will allow an exploration of how the combination of all these factors (gender, type of relationship, sexual orientation, attachment style, and relationship status) may influence emotions of jealousy