단어임베딩을 이용한 일본어와 한국어에서의 영어 외래어 의미분석

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 인문대학 언어학과, 2021. 2. 신효필.전 세계적으로 활발한 문화 교류가 이루어짐에 따라 외래어가 일반적으로 자주 사용되는데, 외래어의 수용 과정에서 다양한 언어적 현상이 일어난다. 외래어가 수용됨에 따라 원래 차용주에 존재했던 단어가 사라지기도 하고, 차용어의 접미사와 단어가 차용주의 단어와 결합하여 새로운 단어를 생성하기도 하며, 차용어의 전치사가 외래어로서 그대로 사용되기도 한다. 또한, 외래어 자체는 차용주의 언어적 제약으로 인해 외래어의 정착 과정에서 형태, 음운 및 의미 변화를 겪는다. 이와 같이, 외래어의 수용 과정에서 차용주와 차용어의 다양한 변화가 일어나기 때문에 외래어는 역사언어학의 형태론, 음운론, 의미론과 같은 여러 분야에서 중요하게 연구되는 주제 중 하나이다. 외래어는 주로 차용주의 단어로는 표현할 수 없는 완전히 새로운 외국 제품명이나 개념을 나타내는 데 사용된다. 그런데 한편으로는 이미 고유어로 존재하는 단어를 좀 더 고급스럽고 학술적인 이미지로 바꾸기 위해 외래어를 사용하기도 하는데, 이러한 외래어의 사회언어학적 역할은 최근 특히 주목을 받고 있다. 대부분의 외래어 선행연구는 외래어의 많은 예를 수집하고 언어변화 패턴을 정리하는 방법으로 진행되었다. 최근 말뭉치 기반의 정량적 연구에서는 단어 길이와 같은 언어학적인 요인들이 외래어가 차용주에 성공적으로 정착하는 과정에 영향을 미치는지 통계적으로 연구하는 방법이 많이 사용되었다. 그러나 이러한 단어의 빈도기반 연구는 단어의 복잡한 의미 정보를 정량화하는 데에는 어려움이 있어 외래어 의미 현상에 대한 정량적 분석연구는 아직 진행되지 않았다. 본 연구는 외래어와 관련된 의미 현상을 정량적으로 분석하기 위한 단어임베딩(Word Embedding) 기반의 방법을 제안한다. 단어 임베딩 방법은 딥 러닝 방법과 언어 빅데이터를 사용하여 단어의 의미 문맥 정보를 벡터 값으로 효과적으로 변환할 수 있다. 이 방법을 활용하여 외래어와 관련된 의미 현상의 세 가지 주제, 어휘 경쟁, 의미적 적응, 사회적 의미 기능과 문화적 경향 변화에 초점을 맞추어 연구를 진행하였다. 첫 번째 연구는 외래어와 차용주의 동의어 간의 어휘경쟁에 중점을 둔다. 빈도기반의 방법으로는 어휘 경쟁의 유형(단어 대체 또는 의미 분화)을 구별할 수 없다. 어휘 경쟁의 유형을 판단하려면 외래어와 차용주 동의어 간의 문맥 공유 상태를 파악해야 한다. 문맥 공유 상태를 정량적으로 모델링하기 위해 본 연구는 기하학적 개념을 적용한다. 제안된 기하학적 단어 임베딩 기반 모델은 외래어와 수용언어의 동의어 사이에서 발생하는 어휘 경쟁을 정량적으로 판단함을 확인할 수 있었다. 두 번째 연구는 일본어와 한국어에서의 영어 외래어의 의미 적응에 중점을 둔다. 영어 외래어는 차용주에 정착하는 과정을 통해 의미 적응을 겪는다. 본 연구는 외래어와 영어 고유어와의 의미 차이를 비교하기 위해 변환 행렬 방법을 적용하여 영어 외래어의 일본어와 한국어에서의 의미 적응 차이를 분석하였다. 또한, 영어 단어의 다의성이 의미적응에 주는 영향을 통계적으로 분석하였다. 세 번째 연구는 일본과 한국의 최신 문화적 경향을 반영하는 외래어의 사회 의미적 역할에 초점을 맞춘다. 일본과 한국 사회의 미디어에서는 새로운 문화적인 경향이나 이슈가 생겼을 때 외래어를 자주 사용하므로, 외래어가 일본과 한국의 문화적 경향을 반영하는 역할을 가질 것이 예상된다. 본 연구는 이러한 외래어가 문화적 경향의 변화를 반영하는 지표로서의 역할을 한다는 가설을 제안한다. 이 가설을 검증하기 위해 사전 훈련된 문맥 임베딩 모델(BERT)을 사용하고 시간에 따른 외래어의 문맥 변화를 추적하는 방법을 제안한다. 실험 결과, 제안된 방법을 통해 외래어의 문맥 변화 추적을 통해 문화적 경향의 변화를 감지할 수 있었다. 본 연구에서는 기본적으로 일본어와 한국어 데이터를 사용하였다. 이것은 전산 다국어 대조 언어연구의 가능성을 보여준다. 이러한 단어 임베딩 기반의 의미 분석 방법은 다언어 계산의미론 및 계산사회언어학의 발전에 많은 기여를 할 수 있을 것으로 예상된다.Through cultural exchanges with foreign countries, a lot of foreign words have entered another country with a foreign culture. These foreign words, loanwords, have broadly prevailed in languages all over the world. Historical linguistics has actively studied the loanword because loanword can trigger the linguistic change within the recipient language. Loanwords affect existing words and grammar: native words become obsolete, foreign suffixes and words coin new words and phrases by combining with the native words in the recipient language, and foreign prepositions are used in the recipient language. Loanwords themselves also undergo language changes-morphological, phonological, and semantic changes-because of linguistic constraints of recipient languages through the process of integration and adaptation in the recipient language. Several fields of linguistics-morphology, phonology, and semantics-have studied these changes caused by the invasion of loanwords. Mainly loanwords introduce to the recipient language a completely new foreign product or concept that can not be expressed by the recipient language words. However, people often use loanwords for giving prestigious, luxurious, and academic images. These sociolinguistic roles of loanwords have recently received particular attention in sociolinguistics and pragmatics. Most previous works of loanwords have gathered many examples of loanwords and summarized the linguistic change patterns. Recently, corpus-based quantitative studies have started to statistically reveal several linguistic factors such as the word length influencing the successful integration and adaptation of loanwords in the recipient language. However, these frequency-based researches have difficulties quantifying the complex semantic information. Thus, the quantitative analysis of the loanword semantic phenomena has remained undeveloped. This research sheds light on the quantitative analysis of the semantic phenomena of loanwords using the Word Embedding method. Word embedding can effectively convert semantic contextual information of words to vector values with deep learning methods and big language data. This study suggests several quantitative methods for analyzing the semantic phenomena related to the loanword. This dissertation focuses on three topics of semantic phenomena related to the loanword: Lexical competition, Semantic adaptation, and Social semantic function and the cultural trend change. The first study focuses on the lexical competition between the loanword and the native synonym. Frequency can not distinguish the types of a lexical competition: Word replacement or Semantic differentiation. Judging the type of lexical competition requires to know the context sharing condition between loanwords and the native synonyms. We apply the geometrical concept to modeling the context sharing condition. This geometrical word embedding-based model quantitatively judges what lexical competitions happen between the loanwords and the native synonyms. The second study focus on the semantic adaptation of English loanwords in Japanese and Korean. The original English loanwords undergo semantic change (semantic adaptation) through the process of integration and adaptation in the recipient language. This study applies the transformation matrix method to compare the semantic difference between the loanwords and the original English words. This study extends this transformation method for a contrastive study of the semantic adaptation of English loanwords in Japanese and Korean. The third study focuses on the social semantic role of loanwords reflecting the current cultural trend in Japanese and Korean. Japanese and Korean society frequently use loanwords when new trends or issues happened. Loanwords seem to work as signals alarming the cultural trend in Japanese and Korean. Thus, we propose the hypothesis that loanwords have a role as an indicator of the cultural trend change. This study suggests the tracking method of the contextual change of loanwords through time with the pre-trained contextual embedding model (BERT) for verifying this hypothesis. This word embedding-based method can detect the cultural trend change through the contextual change of loanwords. Throughout these studies, we used our methods in Japanese and Korean data. This shows the possibility for the computational multilingual contrastive linguistic study. These word embedding-based semantic analysis methods will contribute a lot to the development of computational semantics and computational sociolinguistics in various languages.Abstract i Contents iv List of Tables viii List of Figures xi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Overview of Loanword Study 1 1.2 Research Topics in this Dissertation 6 1.2.1 Lexical Competition between Loanword and Native Synonym 6 1.2.2 Semantic Adaptation of Loanwords 8 1.2.3 Social Semantic Function and the Cultural Trend Change 11 1.3 Methodological Background 14 1.3.1 The Vector Space Model 14 1.3.2 The Bag of Words Model 15 1.3.3 Neural Network and Neural Probabilistic Language Model 15 1.3.4 Distributional Model and Word2vec 18 1.3.5 The Contextual Word Embedding and BERT 21 1.4 Summary of this Chapter 23 2 Word Embeddings for Lexical Changes Caused by Lexical Competition between Loanwords and Native Words 25 2.1 Overview 25 2.2 Related Works 28 2.2.1 Lexical Competition in Loanword 28 2.2.2 Word Embedding Model and Semantic Change 30 2.3 Selection of Loanword and Korean Synonym Pairs 31 2.3.1 Viable Loanwords 31 2.3.2 Previous Approach: The Relative Frequency 31 2.3.3 New Approach: The Proportion Test 32 2.3.4 Technical Challenges for Performing the Proportion Test 32 2.3.5 Filtering Procedures 34 2.3.6 Handling Errors 35 2.3.7 Proportion Test and Questionnaire Survey 36 2.4 Analysis of Lexical Competition 38 2.4.1 The Geometrical Model for Analyzing the Lexical Competition 39 2.4.2 Word Embedding Model for Analyzing Lexical Competition 44 2.4.3 Result and Discussion 44 2.5 Conclusion and Future Work 48 3 Applying Word Embeddings to Measure the Semantic Adaptation of English Loanwords in Japanese and Korean 51 3.1 Overview 51 3.2 Methodology 54 3.3 Data and Experiment 55 3.4 Result and Discussion 58 3.4.1 Japanese 59 3.4.2 Korean 63 3.4.3 Comparison of Cosine Similarities of English Loanwords in Japanese and Korean 68 3.4.4 The Relationship Between the Number of Meanings and Cosine Similarities 75 3.5 Conclusion and Future Works 77 4 Detection of the Contextual Change of Loanwords and the Cultural Trend Change in Japanese and Korean through Pre-trained BERT Language Models 78 4.1 Overview 78 4.2 Related Work 81 4.2.1 Loanwords and Cultural Trend Change 81 4.2.2 Word Embeddings and Semantic Change 81 4.2.3 Contextualized Embedding and Diachronic Semantic Representation 82 4.3 The Framework 82 4.3.1 Sense Representation 82 4.3.2 Tracking the Contextual Changes 85 4.3.3 Evaluation of Frame Work 86 4.3.4 Discussion for Framework 89 4.4 The Cultural Trend Change Analysis through Loanword Contextual Change Detection 89 4.4.1 Methodology 89 4.4.2 Result and Discussion 91 4.5 Conclusion and Future Work 96 5 Conclusion and Future Works 97 5.1 Summary 97 5.2 Future Works 99 5.2.1 Revealing Statistical Law 99 5.2.2 Computational Contrastive Linguistic Study 100 5.2.3 Application to Other Semantics Tasks 100 A List of Loanword Having One Synset and One Definition in Korean CoreNet in Chapter 2 112 Abstract (In Korean) 118Docto

CONSONANT CLUSTERS IN INDONESIAN LOANWORDS

This paper investigates two types of loanwords in Indonesian from a list published by NUSA in 1997 and the online version of Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI, 2019):  those of Sanskrit origin, and of European origins. When languages borrow words from one another, they may employ various strategies in dealing with unfamiliar sounds and/or sound combinations. Overall, the study is conducted by means of descriptive qualitative method, having a focus on corpus research. Specifically, this research is concerned with the handling of syllable-initial consonant clusters that is not present in native Indonesian words. The two different patterns dealing with consonant clusters in loanwords are 1) The tendency for consonant cluster preservation in European loanwords; and 2) The tendency to insert a vowel sound to break up consonant clusters in Sanskrit loanwords. It happens due to the differences in the time frame and scope of Sanskrit and European language influences in Indonesia. The results show that onset consonant clusters have become a definite marker of loanwords in Indonesia

Pitch Accent in Korean

Typologically, pitch-accent languages stand between stress languages like Spanish and tone languages like Shona, and share properties of both. In a stress language typically just one syllable per word is accented and bears the major stress (cf. Spanish sábana ‘sheet’, sabána ‘plain’, Panamá). In a tone language the number of distinctions grows geometrically with the size of the word. So in Shona, which contrasts high vs. low tone, trisyllabic words have eight possible pitch patterns. In a canonical pitch-accent language such as Japanese, just one syllable (or mora) per word is singled out as distinctive, as in Spanish. But each syllable in the word is assigned a high or low tone (as in Shona); however, this assignment is predictable based on the location of the accented syllableKeywords: tonal accent, diachrony, phonetic realization, compounds, phonological phrases, loanwords, frequency, reconstructio

Loan Phonology

For many different reasons, speakers borrow words from other languages to fill gaps in their own lexical inventory. The past ten years have been characterized by a great interest among phonologists in the issue of how the nativization of loanwords occurs. The general feeling is that loanword nativization provides a direct window for observing how acoustic cues are categorized in terms of the distinctive features relevant to the L1 phonological system as well as for studying L1 phonological processes in action and thus to the true synchronic phonology of L1. The collection of essays presented in this volume provides an overview of the complex issues phonologists face when investigating this phenomenon and, more generally, the ways in which unfamiliar sounds and sound sequences are adapted to converge with the native language’s sound pattern. This book is of interest to theoretical phonologists as well as to linguists interested in language contact phenomena

Information-theoretic causal inference of lexical flow

This volume seeks to infer large phylogenetic networks from phonetically encoded lexical data and contribute in this way to the historical study of language varieties. The technical step that enables progress in this case is the use of causal inference algorithms. Sample sets of words from language varieties are preprocessed into automatically inferred cognate sets, and then modeled as information-theoretic variables based on an intuitive measure of cognate overlap. Causal inference is then applied to these variables in order to determine the existence and direction of influence among the varieties. The directed arcs in the resulting graph structures can be interpreted as reflecting the existence and directionality of lexical flow, a unified model which subsumes inheritance and borrowing as the two main ways of transmission that shape the basic lexicon of languages. A flow-based separation criterion and domain-specific directionality detection criteria are developed to make existing causal inference algorithms more robust against imperfect cognacy data, giving rise to two new algorithms. The Phylogenetic Lexical Flow Inference (PLFI) algorithm requires lexical features of proto-languages to be reconstructed in advance, but yields fully general phylogenetic networks, whereas the more complex Contact Lexical Flow Inference (CLFI) algorithm treats proto-languages as hidden common causes, and only returns hypotheses of historical contact situations between attested languages. The algorithms are evaluated both against a large lexical database of Northern Eurasia spanning many language families, and against simulated data generated by a new model of language contact that builds on the opening and closing of directional contact channels as primary evolutionary events. The algorithms are found to infer the existence of contacts very reliably, whereas the inference of directionality remains difficult. This currently limits the new algorithms to a role as exploratory tools for quickly detecting salient patterns in large lexical datasets, but it should soon be possible for the framework to be enhanced e.g. by confidence values for each directionality decision

The Impact of Ideology on Lexical Borrowing in Arabic: A Synergy of Corpus Linguistics and CDA

Lexical borrowing is a natural outcome of language contact and one source of neologisms. The traditional view of lexical borrowing explains it as motivated mainly by lexical need or prestige where loans in the recipient language have more or less similar if not identical meanings with the borrowing language. Linguistic adaptation has been often seen grammatically based where grammarians or linguists assume the major task of nativizing foreign terms. This is typical in many studies on linguistic borrowing in Arabic while a secondary attention is given to semantic, sociolinguistic, and educational perspectives. The present study approached lexical borrowing as more language users’ task emphasizing their role in meaning construction. Three English loanwords in Arabic (agenda, liberal, lobby) were studied in naturally occurring language to see if their meanings and co-occurrence patterns correspond to their equivalents in English and, thus, agree with the notion of lexical need to linguistic borrowing. Some of the meanings of the loans fall under the domain of sociopolitics which is a fertile site believed to show ideological impact. Using two analytical frameworks of Sinclair (2005, 1998) and Van Dijk (2014, 2016b, 2016a), the three loanwords were investigated from corpus linguistics and CDA angles. The findings revealed different co-occurrence patterns in Arabic characterized by negative associations than in English. Negative associations were motivated by (religious, political, linguistic) ideological stances often implied in the connotations and attitudinal meanings of real language use. Ideological influence was also reproduced in Arabic dictionaries where some loanwords or their meanings are vi absent or excluded though used in formal settings. The connection between dictionary making and learning as influenced by dominant ideology was also explored

Phonology modulates the illusory vowels in perceptual illusions: Evidence from Mandarin and English

Native speakers perceive illusory vowels when presented with sound sequences that do not respect the phonotactic constraints of their language (Dupoux, Kakehi, Hirose, Pallier, & Mehler, 1999; Kabak & Idsardi, 2007). There is, however, less work on the quality of the illusory vowel. Recently, it has been claimed that the quality of the illusory vowel is also modulated by the phonology of the language, and that the phenomenon of illusory vowels can be understood as a result of the listener reverse inferring the best parse of the underlying representation given their native language phonology and the acoustics of the input stream (Durvasula & Kahng, 2015). The view predicts that listeners are likely to hear different illusory vowels in different phonological contexts. In support of this prediction, we show through two perceptual experiments that Mandarin Chinese speakers (but not American English speakers) perceive different illusory vowels in different phonotactic contexts. Specifically, when presented with phonotactically illegal alveopalatal coda consonants, Mandarin speakers perceived an illusory /i/, but in illegal alveolar stop coda contexts, they perceived a /?/

Information-theoretic causal inference of lexical flow

This volume seeks to infer large phylogenetic networks from phonetically encoded lexical data and contribute in this way to the historical study of language varieties. The technical step that enables progress in this case is the use of causal inference algorithms. Sample sets of words from language varieties are preprocessed into automatically inferred cognate sets, and then modeled as information-theoretic variables based on an intuitive measure of cognate overlap. Causal inference is then applied to these variables in order to determine the existence and direction of influence among the varieties. The directed arcs in the resulting graph structures can be interpreted as reflecting the existence and directionality of lexical flow, a unified model which subsumes inheritance and borrowing as the two main ways of transmission that shape the basic lexicon of languages

The laws of "LOL": Computational approaches to sociolinguistic variation in online discussions

When speaking or writing, a person often chooses one form of language over another based on social constraints, including expectations in a conversation, participation in a global change, or expression of underlying attitudes. Sociolinguistic variation (e.g. choosing "going" versus "goin'") can reveal consistent social differences such as dialects and consistent social motivations such as audience design. While traditional sociolinguistics studies variation in spoken communication, computational sociolinguistics investigates written communication on social media. The structured nature of online discussions and the diversity of language patterns allow computational sociolinguists to test highly specific hypotheses about communication, such different configurations of listener "audience." Studying communication choices in online discussions sheds light on long-standing sociolinguistic questions that are hard to tackle, and helps social media platforms anticipate their members' complicated patterns of participation in conversations. To that end, this thesis explores open questions in sociolinguistic research by quantifying language variation patterns in online discussions. I leverage the "birds-eye" view of social media to focus on three major questions in sociolinguistics research relating to authors' participation in online discussions. First, I test the role of conversation expectations in the context of content bans and crisis events, and I show that authors vary their language to adjust to audience expectations in line with community standards and shared knowledge. Next, I investigate language change in online discussions and show that language structure, more than social context, explains word adoption. Lastly, I investigate the expression of social attitudes among multilingual speakers, and I find that such attitudes can explain language choice when the attitudes have a clear social meaning based on the discussion context. This thesis demonstrates the rich opportunities that social media provides for addressing sociolinguistic questions and provides insight into how people adapt to the communication affordances in online platforms.Ph.D

Variation in the use of innovative katakana in a Japanese corpus

This study assesses writer’s use of innovative katakana forms in texts in a corpus of written Japanese and examines the effects of linguistic and social factors on the use of innovative katakana. Focusing specifically on innovative katakana that represent sequences including /w/ and /v/ phones, one of the aims of the study is to investigate whether the presence of /w/ in the native phonological system encourages the use of innovative /w/ forms in sequences that do not appear in native lexical items. This is in contrast to forms containing /v/ which lack native counterparts in any context in the Japanese phonological system. Another objective of this paper is to investigate whether the likelihood of using innovative katakana is affected by position within a word. Also, this research applied the framework of variationist sociolinguistics to identify which social factors significantly affect the innovative writing behavior. To answers these questions, this study uses the data collected from the Chunagon database for descriptive analysis and multivariate analysis. The Chunagon corpus is a written corpus compiled by the National Institution of Japanese Language and Linguistics which contains approximately 100 million words and includes texts published between the 1970's and the 2000's. The results show that the presence of native phones triggers a higher usage of innovative katakana in loanword forms containing /w/ as compared to /v/ forms. The findings also indicate that innovative /w/ and /v/ forms occurred more often in word-initial position than in medial and final positions. Concerning the social factors, the multivariate results show that there is no effect for age and gender for the /w/ variable but for the /v/ variable, there is an effect of gender. Only the /v/ variable showed expected innovative preference in informal (webs and books) genres whereas the /w/ variable showed an unanticipated higher innovative usage in a formal register which comprises governmental and legal genres. In sum, this study has presented some significant findings of showing linguistic reasons (the presence of native phone and the positional effect) that would enhance the use of innovative katakana in written texts