Engineering data compendium. Human perception and performance. User's guide

The concept underlying the Engineering Data Compendium was the product of a research and development program (Integrated Perceptual Information for Designers project) aimed at facilitating the application of basic research findings in human performance to the design and military crew systems. The principal objective was to develop a workable strategy for: (1) identifying and distilling information of potential value to system design from the existing research literature, and (2) presenting this technical information in a way that would aid its accessibility, interpretability, and applicability by systems designers. The present four volumes of the Engineering Data Compendium represent the first implementation of this strategy. This is the first volume, the User's Guide, containing a description of the program and instructions for its use

Vibrotactile Feedback Improves Manual Control of Tilt After Spaceflight

The objectives of this study were to quantify decrements in controlling tilt on astronauts immediately after short-duration spaceflight, and to evaluate vibrotactile feedback of tilt as a potential countermeasure. Eleven subjects were rotated on a variable radius centrifuge (216°/s <20 cm radius) in a darkened room to elicit tilt disturbance in roll (≤± 15°). Nine of these subjects performed a nulling task in the pitch plane (≤±7.5°). Small tactors placed around the torso vibrated at 250 Hz to provide tactile feedback when the body tilt exceeded predetermined levels. The subjects performed closed-loop nulling tasks during random tilt steps with and without this vibrotactile feedback of tilt. There was a significant effect of spaceflight on the performance of the nulling tasks based on root mean square error. Performance returned to baseline levels 1–2 days after landing. Vibrotactile feedback significantly improved performance of nulling tilt during all test sessions. Nulling performance in roll was significantly correlated with performance in pitch. These results indicate that adaptive changes in astronauts’ vestibular processing during spaceflight impair their ability to manually control tilt following transitions between gravitational environments. A simple vibrotactile prosthesis improves their ability to null-out tilt within a limited range of motion disturbances

The Naturalistic Flight Deck System: An Integrated System Concept for Improved Single-Pilot Operations

This paper reviews current and emerging operational experiences, technologies, and human-machine interaction theories to develop an integrated flight system concept designed to increase the safety, reliability, and performance of single-pilot operations in an increasingly accommodating but stringent national airspace system. This concept, know as the Naturalistic Flight Deck (NFD), uses a form of human-centered automation known as complementary-automation (or complemation) to structure the relationship between the human operator and the aircraft as independent, collaborative agents having complimentary capabilities. The human provides commonsense knowledge, general intelligence, and creative thinking, while the machine contributes specialized intelligence and control, extreme vigilance, resistance to fatigue, and encyclopedic memory. To support the development of the NFD, an initial Concept of Operations has been created and selected normal and non-normal scenarios are presented in this document

Novel Haptic Cueing for UAV Tele-Operation.

The use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) is continuously increasing both for military and civilian operations. The degree of automation inside an UAV has reached the capability of high levels of autonomy, increasing but human participation/action is still a requirement to ensure an ultimate level of safety for the mission. Direct remote piloting is often required for a board range of situations; this is true especially for larger UAVs, where a fault might be dangerous for the platform but even for the other entities of its environment (people, building etc.). Unfortunately the physical separation between pilot/operator and the UAV reduces greatly the situational awareness; this has a negative impact on system performance in the presence of remote and unforeseen environmental constraints and disturbances. This is why this thesis is dedicated to the study of means to increase the level of situational awareness of the UAV operator. The sense of telepresence is very important in teleoperation, and it appears reasonable, and it has already been shown in the literature, that extending the visual feedback with force feedback is able to complement the visual information (when missing or limited). An artificially recreated sense of touch (haptic) may allow the operator to better perceive information from the remote aircraft state, the environment and its constraints, hopefully preventing dangerous situations. This thesis introdues first a novel classification for haptic aid systems in two large classes: Direct Haptic Aid (DHA) and Indirect Haptic Aid (IHA), then, after showing that almost all existing aid concepts belong to the first class, focuses on IHA and tries to show that classical applications (that used a DHA approach) can be revised in a IHA fashion. The novel IHA systems produce different sensations, which in most cases may appear as exactly "opposite in sign" from the corresponding DHA; these sensations can provide valuable cues for the pilot, both in terms of improvement of performance and "level of appreciation". Furthermore, it will be shown that the novel cueing algorithms, which were designed just to appear "natural" to the operator, and not to directly help the pilot in his task (as in the DHA cases), can outperform the corresponding DHA systems. Three case studies were selected: obstacle avoidance, wind gust rejection, and a combination of the two. For all the cases, DHA and IHA systems were designed and compared against baseline performance with no haptic aid. Test results show that a net improvement in terms of performance is provided by employing the IHA cuse instead of both the DHA cues or the visual cues only. Both professional pilots and naïve subjects were used in some of the experiments. The perceived feelings transmitted by the haptic cues, strongly depend by the type of the experiment and the quality of the participants: the professional pilots, for instance, retained the DHA the most helpful force while they preferred IHA because they found it more natural and because they felt a better control authority on the aircraft; different results were obtained with naive participants. In the end, this thesis aim is to show that the IHA philosophy is a valid and promising alternative to the other commonly used, and published in the scientific literature, approaches which fall in the DHA category. Finally the haptic cueing for the obstacle avoidance task was tested in the presence of time delay in the communication link, as in a classical bilateral teleoperation scheme. The Master was provide with an admittance controller and an observer for force exerted by the human on the stick was developed. Experiments have shown that the proposed system is capable of standing substantial communication delays

Motion feedback in the teleoperation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

Teleoperation of unmanned vehicles is a valuable tool in scenarios where the operator can not or should not operate the vehicle from on-board. Applications range from hazardous environments where exposure needs to be avoided, control of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) to retrieve overviews of inaccessible disaster areas, to deep sea exploration where on-board operation is simply not possible. However, limitations in sensor performance, noise and laten- cies introduced in the transmission, and ineffective display of the information to the operator can lead to a reduced amount of infor- mation, reduced performance, a loss of situation awareness, and in the worst case a loss of the remote vehicle. The spatial decoupling between the operator and the vehicle is one of the main challenges in teleoperation. Most setups include one or more control sticks to steer the ve- hicle, a monitor displaying the live video feed of the main vehicle camera, and a seat for the operator. This can be extended by display- ing additional state information using monitors or visual overlay, rendered on top of the main video stream [Tvaryanas, 2004; van Erp, 2000]. However, processing of multiple screens can increase mental workload. This can cause the operator to miss important information, leading to a loss of situation awareness and reduced performance or a crash of the vehicle. Instead of presenting information purely visually, other feedback modalities can be used to convey vehicle state or information about the task. The goal of this PhD thesis is to investigate the possibility of providing additional information using motion feedback. Here, motion feedback is defined as physically moving the operator using a motion simulator. In the work presented in this thesis a distinction between two motion feedback types is made. Vehicle-state motion feedback describes vehicle motion, while task-related motion feedback is the result of the combination of desired and actual vehicle motion. To investigate the effects of motion feedback in teleoperation several studies have been conducted. In the experiments presented participants either controlled a virtual quadrotor flying in a simu- lated environment or a real octorotor. Participants controlled the UAV from within the CyberMotion Simulator (CMS), an 8-DOF motion simulator located at the Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics. The results show that providing motion feedback has a positive effect on performance in teleoperation of remote UAVs. If the remote vehicle is subject to external disturbances, e.g., wind gusts, vehicle- state feedback showed to improve disturbance rejection capabilities leading to increased performance. Furthermore, motion feedback can be shaped to include additional information about the task with positive effects on performance. This shows that the additional information included in the motion feedback can be used by the operator to improve performance and control behavior.Die Teleoperation eines unbemannten Gefährts ist ein wertvolles Werkzeug in Situationen, in denen der Pilot das Gefährt nicht von Bord aus steuern kann oder sollte. Beispiele hierfür reichen von, für den Piloten, toxischen Umgebungen, über Luftaufnahmen von Katastrophengebieten mithilfe von unbemannten Flugzeugen (engl. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle(UAV)), bis zur Erforschung der Tiefsee, bei der die Steuerung von Bord schlichtweg unmöglich wird. Allerdings führen Einschränkungen in der Sensorerfassung, Rau- schen und Latenzen in der Übertragung, sowie eine ineffiziente Darstellung der Informationen für den Piloten dann zu einem redu- zierten Informationsfluss, reduzierter Leistung, einem Verlust des Situationsbewusstseins und im schlimmsten Fall zu einem Verlust des Gefährts. Die räumliche Entkopplung zwischen dem Piloten und des Flugobjekts ist eine der wichtigsten Herausforderungen in der Teleoperation von UAVs. Die meisten Kontrollstationen beinhalten ein oder mehrere Steu- erknüppel um das Gefährt zu steuern, einen Monitor der eine di- rekte Videoübertragung der Hauptkamera anzeigt und ein Sitzplatz für den Piloten. Dies kann erweitert werden, in dem zusätzliche Statusinformationen mit weiteren Monitoren oder visuellen Über- lagerungen, die über die Hauptübertragung gezeichnet werden, angezeigt werden [Tvaryanas, 2004; van Erp, 2000]. Jedoch kann die Verarbeitung mehrerer Bildschirme die mentale Belastung erhö- hen. Dies kann dazu führen, dass der Pilot wichtige Informationen nicht aufnimmt, was zu einem Verlust des Situationsbewusstseins und einhergehender reduzierten Leistung oder einem Unfall des Gefährts führt. Anstatt Information rein visuell zu präsentieren, können ande- re Modalitäten genutzt werden Rückmeldungen über den Status des Gefährts oder Informationen über die Aufgabe zu präsentieren. Das Ziel dieser Doktorarbeit ist die Untersuchung der Modalität der Bewegung. Es soll untersucht werden, ob Bewegungen genutzt werden können, um dem Piloten zusätzliche Rückmeldungen über den Zustand des Gefährts bereit zu stellen. Bewegungsfeedback beschreibt hier die physikalische Bewegung des Piloten mit Hilfe eines Bewegungssimulators. In dieser Arbeit wird zwischen zwei Typen von Bewegungsfeedback unterschieden. Fahrzeugzustandsbe- wegungsfeedback beschreibt die Bewegung des Fahrzeugs, während Aufgabenabhängiges Bewegungsfeedback die Kombination aus tatsächli- chem und gewünschtem Fahrzeugzustand ist. Die Effekte von Bewegungsfeedback in der Teleoperation wurden in mehreren Studien untersucht. In den vorgestellten Experimenten kontrollierten Teilnehmer entweder einen virtuellen Quadrotor, der in einer simulierten Umgebung flog, oder einen echten Octorotor. Die Teilnehmer steuerten das UAV von der Kanzel des CyberMotion Simulators (CMS) aus, ein 8-DOF Bewegungssimulator, der sich am Max-Planck-Institut für biologische Kybernetik befindet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Bereitstellung von Bewegungs- feedback positive Effekte auf die Leistung und das Verhalten des Piloten in der Steuerung des UAVs hat. Ist das UAV externen Stö- rungen ausgesetzt, wie z.B. Windstößen, zeigte sich, dass Fahr- zeugzustandsbewegungsfeedback die Fähigkeit der Störungsunter- drückung des Piloten verbessert, was zu Leistungsteigerungen führt. Außerdem zeigte sich, dass Bewegungsfeedback dahingehend ge- formt werden kann, zusätzliche Informationen über die Aufgabe bereitzustellen. Dies zeigt, dass die zusätzlichen Informationen vom Piloten genutzt werden können um Leistung und Kontrollverhalten zu verbessern

Change blindness: eradication of gestalt strategies

Arrays of eight, texture-defined rectangles were used as stimuli in a one-shot change blindness (CB) task where there was a 50% chance that one rectangle would change orientation between two successive presentations separated by an interval. CB was eliminated by cueing the target rectangle in the first stimulus, reduced by cueing in the interval and unaffected by cueing in the second presentation. This supports the idea that a representation was formed that persisted through the interval before being 'overwritten' by the second presentation (Landman et al, 2003 Vision Research 43149–164]. Another possibility is that participants used some kind of grouping or Gestalt strategy. To test this we changed the spatial position of the rectangles in the second presentation by shifting them along imaginary spokes (by ±1 degree) emanating from the central fixation point. There was no significant difference seen in performance between this and the standard task [F(1,4)=2.565, p=0.185]. This may suggest two things: (i) Gestalt grouping is not used as a strategy in these tasks, and (ii) it gives further weight to the argument that objects may be stored and retrieved from a pre-attentional store during this task

Aerial Vehicles

This book contains 35 chapters written by experts in developing techniques for making aerial vehicles more intelligent, more reliable, more flexible in use, and safer in operation.It will also serve as an inspiration for further improvement of the design and application of aeral vehicles. The advanced techniques and research described here may also be applicable to other high-tech areas such as robotics, avionics, vetronics, and space

An ecological perceptual aid for precision vertical landings

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2006.Includes bibliographical references (p. 157-162).Pilots of vertical landing vehicles face numerous control challenges which often involve the loss of outside visual perceptual cues or the control of flight parameters within tight constraints. These challenges are often associated with a high mental workload, therefore, a precision landing aid that addresses and helps to mitigate these challenges, and reduce mental workload is needed. To address this need, a cognitive task analysis identified specific situation awareness requirements for the design of a vertical landing aid in order to reduce the mental steps required during a vertical landing. From these requirements, a new vertical landing decision aid, known as the Vertical Altitude and Velocity Indicator (VAVI) was designed, which displays altitude and vertical speed information in an integrated form including the display of flight parameter safety constraints. The display instrument takes advantage of direct-perception interaction by leveraging ecological perception and emergent features to provide quick perception and comprehension of critical flight parameters in an integrated fashion. To test the effectiveness of the VAVI for vertical landing and hover performance, an experiment was conducted in which participants flew a simulated Harrier vertical landing flight profile using Microsoft Flight Simulator (MSFS) 2004.(cont.) Participants were recruited for their helicopter pilot experience or PC flight simulator experience. Two heads-up displays were implemented: one which included the VAVI, and another which displayed altitude and vertical speed information consistent with operational V/STOL aircraft head-up displays. A 2x2 ANOVA design was utilized in which the heads-up display was a between-subjects factor and flight task, which included hovering and landing, was a within-subjects factor. Participants participated in two test scenarios which involved hovering at a specified altitudes and descending using either a static or dynamic vertical speed heuristic. The VAVI showed statistically significantly better vertical speed control performance over the conventional display of altitude and vertical speed. Similarly, though not statistically significant, other dependent variables used to measure landing performance as well as precision hovering consistently resulted in better performance with the VAVI. A subjective workload survey indicated that the VAVI caused less workload across all experimental tasks, indicating that the VAVI does help to remove some of the demanding cognitive processes currently associated with vertical landing and hover operations. Future design and implementation issues are discussed.by Cristin Anne Smith.S.M

Human estimation of slope, distance, and height of terrain in simulated lunar conditions

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2009.Includes bibliographical references (p. 161-166).As NASA's Vision for Space Exploration seeks to explore mountainous regions near the southern pole through frequent, long excursions, astronauts will require accurate navigational assistance. Current and future technology, including LIDAR data, laser rangefinders, and path planning programs will likely be available; however, the human's own perception of the terrain may affect their confidence in these instruments and be necessary during emergency situations. These unique lunar conditions are expected to affect human perception: the lack of an atmosphere (inhibiting the use of aerial perspective as a distance cue and causing the formation of deep cast shadows), the non-Lambertian regolith reflectance properties, the lack of familiar objects, and the physiological effects of reduced gravity. This project examines the inherent errors humans make when judging the slope, distance, and height of terrain, both on the Earth in a lunar-like environment and on the Moon using photographs from the Apollo missions. Five experiments were conducted in field and Virtual Reality (VR) environments. The effects of true slope, true distance, and sun elevation on slope estimates were determined using visual and motor responses in a lunar-like Utah environment and reproduced in a VR environment using synoptically viewed images in two body positions, under normal and lunar Gz loading conditions. The effects of true slope, distance, and body position on slope, distance, and height estimates of synoptically viewed Apollo panoramic images were measured and compared to measurements obtained from topographical maps. Systematic and random errors were determined for all estimates. Slope estimate comparisons were made between lunar-like and lunar terrain and also between lunar hills and craters. Slope was significantly overestimated in the field study by 130 - 230 with large between-subject errors.(cont.) Lunar-like field and VR slope estimates were not significantly different from each other. Slope estimates were significantly greater at lower sun elevations and closer distances in the Lunar-like VR Study. Both slope and distance estimates were significantly greater from a lunar Gz supine position. Lunar distance estimates varied largely and slope estimation errors were significantly greater for craters than for hills. A new relationsihp between hill shape and perceived steepness was also discovered. The recommendations of this study include the development of a VR training tool to calibrate an astronaut's slope, distance, and height perception prior to lunar missions and future field studies at Devon Island to determine the effect of hill shape on estimates and to determine the regression coefficients of sun elevation and distance variables to be used in a model integrated with rangefinding devices in a Heads-Up-Display (HUD).by Christopher Oravetz.S.M