Research and Implement of PMSM Regenerative Braking Control for Electric Vehicle

As the society pays more and more attention to the environment pollution and energy crisis, the electric vehicle (EV) development also entered in a new era. With the development of motor speed control technology and the improvement of motor performance, although the dynamic performance and economical cost of EVs are both better than the internal-combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), the driving range limit and charging station distribution are two major problems which limit the popularization of EVs. In order to extend driving range for EVs, regenerative braking (RB) emerges which is able to recover energy during the braking process to improve the energy efficiency. This thesis aims to investigate the RB based pure electric braking system and its implementation. There are many forms of RB system such as fully electrified braking system and blended braking system (BBS) which is equipped both electric RB system and hydraulic braking (HB) system. In this thesis the main research objective is the RB based fully electrified braking system, however, RB system cannot satisfy all braking situation only by itself. Because the regenerating electromagnetic torque may be too small to meet the braking intention of the driver when the vehicle speed is very low and the regenerating electromagnetic torque may be not enough to stop the vehicle as soon as possible in the case of emergency braking. So, in order to ensure braking safety and braking performance, braking torque should be provided with different forms regarding different braking situation and different braking intention. In this thesis, braking torque is classified into three types. First one is normal reverse current braking when the vehicle speed is too low to have enough RB torque. Second one is RB torque which could recover kinetic energy by regenerating electricity and collecting electric energy into battery packs. The last braking situation is emergency where the braking torque is provided by motor plugging braking based on the optimal slip ratio braking control strategy. Considering two indicators of the RB system which are regenerative efficiency and braking safety, a trade-off point should be found and the corresponding control strategy should be designed. In this thesis, the maximum regenerative efficiency is obtained by a braking torque distribution strategy between front wheel and rear wheel based on a maximum available RB torque estimation method and ECE-R13 regulation. And the emergency braking performance is ensured by a novel fractional-order integral sliding mode control (FOISMC) and numerical simulations show that the control performance is better than the conventional sliding mode controller

A Review of Developments in Electrical Battery, Fuel Cell and Energy Recovery Systems for Railway Applications: a Report for the Scottish Association for Public Transport

This report outlines the current status of batteries, hydrogen fuel cells and short-term energy storage systems for railway and tramway applications. The report includes discussion of issues associated with regenerative braking and the recovery of energy that would otherwise be dissipated as heat during braking. As well as feeding energy back to the supply grid, as in the case of conventional electrified rail systems, energy recovery may also be achieved using batteries, supercapacitors, flywheels or hydraulic devices and developments in each of these areas are reviewed. The advantages of hybrid systems that involve combinations of different power sources and energy storage methods are emphasised and some associated design optimisation issues are discussed. For each of the developments mentioned, there is a brief account given of some transport applications in the United Kingdom and elsewhere. This is a rapidly developing field and operating experience with vehicles currently entering service in various countries will provide important additional insight within the next two or three years

The dynamic performance and economic benefit of a blended braking system in a multi-speed battery electric vehicle

© 2016 Elsevier Ltd As motor-supplied braking torque is applied to the wheels in an entirely different way to hydraulic friction braking systems and it is usually only connected to one axle complicated effects such as wheel slip and locking, vehicle body bounce and braking distance variation will inevitability impact on the performance and safety of braking. The potential for braking energy recovery in typical driving cycles is presented to show its benefit in this study. A general predictive model is designed to analysis the economic and dynamic performance of blended braking systems, satisfying the relevant regulations/laws and critical limitations. Braking strategies for different purposes are proposed to achieve a balance between braking performance, driving comfort and energy recovery rate. Special measures are taken to avoid any effects of motor failure. All strategies are analyzed in detail for various braking events. Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), such as ABS and EBD, are properly integrated to work with the regenerative braking system (RBS) harmoniously. Different switching plans during braking are discussed. The braking energy recovery rates and brake force distribution details for different driving cycles are simulated. Results for two of the cycles in an ‘Eco’ mode are measured on a drive train test rig and found to agree with the simulated results to within approximately 10%. Reliable conclusions can thus be gained on the economic benefit and dynamic braking performance. The strategies proposed in this paper are shown to not only achieve comfortable and safe braking during all driving conditions, but also to significantly reduce cost in both the short and long term

Study of the Potential of Electrified Powertrains with Dual-Fuel Combustion to Achieve the 2025 Emissions Targets in Heavy-Duty Applications

[ES] El transporte de personas, así como de carga ha evolucionado y crecido tremendamente en los últimos años. El desarrollo tecnológico debió ser adaptado a las diferentes medidas gubernamentales en términos de control de emisiones contaminantes. Desde el acuerdo de Paris en 2015 para mantener el crecimiento de la temperatura global por debajo de 1.5oC, se han impuesto también límites para las emisiones de CO2 por parte de vehículos de carretera. Para el sector del transporte pesado, se han impuesto límites de flota de 15% para 2025 y 30% para 2030 de reducción del CO2 con respecto a 2019. Por lo tanto, esta doble restricción de muy bajos niveles de emisiones contaminantes, así como de gases de efecto invernadero hacen que el sector del transporte este ante un gran desafío tecnológico. En 2022, el transporte de carga tiene un 99% de vehículos propulsados a motor de combustión interna con Diesel como combustible y sin ningún tipo de ayuda eléctrica en el sistema de propulsión. Los límites de emisiones contaminantes como Euro 6 son alcanzados con complejos sistemas de postratamiento que además agregan el consumo de Urea. Trabajos previos en la bibliografía, así como sistemas prototipo han demostrado que es posible alcanzar los objetivos de emisiones contaminantes con métodos avanzados de control de la combustión y así disminuyendo la complejidad del post tratamiento en la salida de gases. Con mayor éxito, el concepto de Reactivity Controlled Combustion Ignition puede alcanzar valores por debajo de Euro 6 con eficiencia similar a la combustión de Diesel. Sin embargo, no soluciona los problemas de emisiones de CO2. Por otro lado, en vehículos de pasajeros fue demostrado con suceso la aplicación de motores eléctricos en el sistema de propulsión para mejorar la eficiencia global del vehículo. El caso extremo son los vehículos puramente electicos donde se alcanza eficiencias por arriba del 70% contra 35% de los vehículos no electrificados. Sin embargo, limitaciones de autonomía, tiempo de carga y la no clara reducción global de la contaminación debido a las emisiones de la energía de la red eléctrica y la contaminación de las baterías de ion-litio hacen que este sistema de propulsión este bajo discusión. Para los vehículos con algún grado de electrificación, las emisiones de gases contaminantes siguen siendo un problema como para el caso no electrificado. Por lo tanto, esta tesis doctoral aborda el problema de emisiones contaminantes, así como de CO2 combinado modos avanzados de combustión con sistemas de propulsión electrificado. La aplicación de estas tecnologías se centra en el sector del transporte de carretera pesado. En particular, un camión de 18 toneladas de carga máxima que originalmente en 2022 equipa un motor seis cilindros de 8 litros con combustión convencional Diesel. El presente trabajo utiliza herramientas experimentales como son medidas en banco motor, así como en carretera para alimentar y validar modelos numéricos de motor, sistema de postratamiento, así como de vehículo. Este último es el punto central del trabajo ya que permite abordar sistemas como el mild hybrid, full hybrid y plug-in hybrid. Calibración de motor experimental dedicada a sistemas de propulsión hibrido es presentada con combustibles sintéticos y/o para llegar a los límites de Euro 7.[CA] El transport de persones, així com de càrrega ha evolucionat i crescut tremendament en els últims anys. El desenvolupament tecnològic degué ser adaptat a les diferents mesures governamentals en termes de control d'emissions contaminants. Des de l'acord de Paris en 2015 per a mantindre el creixement de la temperatura global per davall de 1.5oC, s'han imposat també límits per a les emissions de CO¿ per part de vehicles de carretera. Per al sector del transport pesat, s'han imposat limites de flota de 15% per a 2025 i 30% per a 2030 de reducció del CO¿ respecte a 2019. Per tant, aquesta doble restricció de molt baixos nivells d'emissions contaminants, així com de gasos d'efecte d'hivernacle fan que el sector del transport aquest davant un gran desafiament tecnològic. En 2022, el transport de càrrega té un 99% de vehicles propulsats a motor de combustió interna amb Dièsel com a combustible i sense cap mena d'ajuda elèctrica en el sistema de propulsió. Els limites d'emissions contaminants com a Euro 6 són aconseguits amb complexos sistemes de posttractament que a més agreguen el consum d'Urea. Treballs previs en la bibliografia, així com sistemes prototip han demostrat que és possible aconseguir els objectius d'emissions contaminants amb mètodes avançats de control de la combustió i així disminuint la complexitat del post tractament en l'eixida de gasos. Amb major èxit, el concepte de Reactivity Controlled Combustion Ignition pot aconseguir valors per davall d'Euro 6 amb eficiència similar a la combustió de Dièsel. No obstant això, no soluciona els problemes d'emissions de CO¿. D'altra banda, en vehicles de passatgers va ser demostrat amb succés l'aplicació de motors elèctrics en el sistema de propulsió per a millorar l'eficiència global del vehicle. El cas extrem són els vehicles purament electicos on s'aconsegueix eficiències per dalt del 70% contra 35% dels vehicles no electrificats. No obstant això, limitacions d'autonomia, temps de càrrega i la no clara reducció global de la contaminació a causa de les emissions de l'energia de la xarxa elèctrica i la contaminació de les bateries d'ió-liti fan que aquest sistema de propulsió aquest baix discussió. Per als vehicles amb algun grau d'electrificació, les emissions de gasos contaminants continuen sent un problema com per al cas no electrificat. Per tant, aquesta tesi doctoral aborda el problema d'emissions contaminants, així com de CO¿ combinat maneres avançades de combustió amb sistemes de propulsió electrificat. L'aplicació d'aquestes tecnologies se centra en el sector del transport de carretera pesat. En particular, un camió de 18 tones de càrrega màxima que originalment en 2022 equipa un motor sis cilindres de 8 litres amb combustió convencional Dièsel. El present treball utilitza eines experimentals com són mesures en banc motor, així com en carretera per a alimentar i validar models numèrics de motor, sistema de posttractament, així com de vehicle. Est ultime és el punt central del treball ja que permet abordar sistemes com el mild hybrid, full *hybrid i plug-in hybrid. Calibratge de motor experimental dedicada a sistemes de propulsió hibride és presentada amb combustibles sintètics i/o per a arribar als límits d'Euro 7.[EN] The transport of people, as well as cargo, has evolved and grown tremendously over the recent years. Technological development had to be adapted to the different government measures for controlling polluting emissions. Since the Paris agreement in 2015 limits have also been imposed on the CO2 emissions from road vehicles to keep global temperature growth below 1.5oC. For the heavy transport sector, fleet limits of 15% for 2025 and 30% for 2030 CO2 reduction have been introduced with respect to the limits of 2019. Therefore, the current restriction of very low levels of polluting emissions, as well as greenhouse gases, makes the transport sector face a great technological challenge. In 2021, 99% of freight transport was powered by an internal combustion engine with Diesel as fuel and without any type of electrical assistance in the propulsion system. Moreover, polluting emission limits such as the Euro 6 are achieved with complex post-treatment systems that also add to the consumption of Urea. Previous research and prototype systems have shown that it is possible to achieve polluting emission targets with advanced combustion control methods, thus reducing the complexity of post-treatment in the exhaust gas. With greater success, the concept of Reactivity Controlled Combustion Ignition can reach values below the Euro 6 with similar efficiency to Diesel combustion. Unfortunately, it does not solve the CO2 emission problems. On the other hand, in passenger vehicles, the application of electric motors in the propulsion system has been shown to successfully improve the overall efficiency of the vehicle. The extreme case is the purely electric vehicles, where efficiencies above 70% are achieved against 35% of the non-electrified vehicles. However, limitations of vehicle range, charging time, payload reduction and an unclear overall reduction in greenhouse emissions bring this propulsion system under discussion. For vehicles with some degree of electrification, polluting gas emissions continue to be a problem as for the non-electrified case. Therefore, this doctoral Thesis addresses the problem of polluting emissions and CO2 combined with advanced modes of combustion with electrified propulsion systems. The application of these technologies focuses on the heavy road transport sector. In particular, an 18-ton maximum load truck that originally was equipped with an 8-liter six-cylinder engine with conventional Diesel combustion. The present work uses experimental tools such as measurements on the engine bench as well as on the road to feed and validate numerical models of the engine, after-treatment system, and the vehicle. The latter is the central point of the work since it allows addressing systems such as mild hybrid, full hybrid, and plug-in hybrid. Experimental engine calibration dedicated to hybrid propulsion systems is presented with synthetic fuels in order to reach the limits of the Euro 7.This Doctoral Thesis has been partially supported by the Universitat Politècnica de València through the predoctoral contract of the author (Subprograma 2), which is included within the framework of Programa de Apoyo para la Investigación y Desarrollo (PAID)Martínez Boggio, SD. (2022). Study of the Potential of Electrified Powertrains with Dual-Fuel Combustion to Achieve the 2025 Emissions Targets in Heavy-Duty Applications [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/18883

A Comprehensive Review on Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Energy Control and Management Strategies

We show a new technology to manage solid waste services through optimization methods (on sectoring, routing costs, and resources). This technology is called optimized planning and integrated logistics management (OPILM). It is being applied to Brazilian municipalities as it attends to their major natural features. The technology is formed by a framework of computational systems that uses optimization methods from sector arc routing and scheduling, fleet and staff scheduling, using also mobile smartphone apps. We present some of the results of real cases evaluated for residential refuse collection and selective waste collection in two Brazilian cities (Petrópolis/RJ and Bom Jesus dos Perdões/SP). The plan implementations achieved 17.9% from actual fixed and variable cost savings for sectors (vehicles and workers) and routes (time and distances) for residential refuse collection in Petrópolis/RJ. For the selective waste collection, we detail how we made our project to Bom Jesus dos Perdões/SP. We also present the returns considering costs involved in the management of the operational level and amortized by the investment required to use and apply the proposed technology for Petrópolis/SP

Adapting Regenerative Braking Strength to Driver Preference

The modern automotive industry has witnessed a growing emphasis on adapting the driving experience to individual drivers. With the rising popularity of electrified vehicles, the implementation of regenerative braking systems, specifically lift-off regenerative braking, has become a focal point. However, research indicates that drivers often find the predefined deceleration response during lift-off regenerative braking to be undesirable. This thesis addresses this issue by developing an adaptive regenerative braking controller that learns driver preferences, thereby fulfilling the objective of enhancing the driving experience of lift-off regenerative braking systems by reducing driver fatigue through the minimization of pedal interventions. The research focuses on three critical aspects: accurate identification of driving conditions, acquisition of driver preferences for lift-off regenerative braking, and compatibility with real-time automotive hardware. By leveraging advanced techniques like HDBSCAN clustering, fuzzy logic inference, and online Q-learning, the research achieves accurate driving condition identification and adaptation to individual driver preferences in a control scheme that can be practically deployed in-vehicle. Real-world testing demonstrates the controller's 80.9 % accuracy in identifying driving conditions as well as its successful learning of the driver's preferred deceleration to within 1.9 %. Subsequently, the adaptive regenerative braking controller results in a 23.2 % reduction in pedal interventions during deceleration compared to a baseline that is representative of an industry-standard implementation of lift-off regenerative braking. This outcome underscores the controller's potential to alleviate driver fatigue and enhance the overall driving experience. This research contributes to the advancement of electrified vehicle powertrain control, focusing on improving driver acceptance and satisfaction with regenerative braking systems

DETECTION PROCESS OF ENERGY LOSS IN ELECTRIC RAILWAY VEHICLES

The paper deals with the detection process of energy loss in electric railway hauling vehicles. The importance of efficient energy use in railways and cost-effective rail transport tendency toward regenerative braking energy are considered. In addition, the current situation and improvement opportunities to achieve efficient energy use are examined. Seven measurement series were performed with scheduled Railjet trains between Hegyeshalom and Győr railway stations in Hungary. This railway section is related to the Hungarian State Railways' No. 1 main railway line (between Budapest-Kelenföld and Hegyeshalom state board), which is a part of the international railway line between Budapest and Vienna (capitals of Hungary and Austria, respectively). This double-track, electrified railway line with traditional ballasted superstructures and continuously welded rail tracks is important due to the international passenger and freight transport between Germany, Austria, and Hungary. The value of the regenerative braking energy can be even 20-30% of the total consumed energy. This quite enormous untapped energy can be used for several aims, e.g., for comfort energy demand (air conditioning, heating-cooling, lighting, etc.) or energy-intensive starts. The article also investigates the optimization of regenerative braking energy by seeking the energy-waste locations and the reasons for the significant consumption. The train operator's driving style and habit have been identified as one of the main reasons. Furthermore, train driver assistance systems are recommended to save energy, which is planned for future research

Well-to-Wheel Energy, Emissions, and Cost Analysis of Electricity and Fuel Used in Conventional and Electrified Vehicles, and Their Connection to a Sustainable Energy Infrastructure

Recent legislation by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires record low vehicle tailpipe emissions, necessitating research and development in the areas of lowering conventional (i.e., internal combustion engine) vehicle emissions rates while facilitating the widespread introduction of electrified vehicles. Currently, the EPA views Battery Electric Vehicles as having zero emissions. However, a number of studies illustrate this is not the case when considering the emissions produced in creating the electricity through a full Life Cycle Analysis. As a result, proper comparison of electrified and conventional vehicles must include a complete Well-to-Wheel (WtW) study including the emissions generated through production and use of liquid petroleum and biofuels. As a result, this work provides a full WtW investigation into fuel, electricity, and production analysis of conventional and electrified vehicles. This is supported by a thorough literature review of current and projected future technology, extrapolating to a fleet analysis, as well as applying the technology to an advanced electricity infrastructure. In the following effort, the first chapter simply provides a background into these different areas in order to help set the stage. Chapter 2 explores conventional vehicle emissions profiles predicting future requirements of engine and catalytic exhaust aftertreatment technologies. Findings illustrate that low temperature climates and aging both adversely affect a vehicle's ability to perform proper emissions reductions. This chapter additionally demonstrates an improvement in the fuel use emissions profiles of Argonne National Laboratories' Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model through the update of embedded time-sheet emissions lookup tables using EPA's Motor Vehicle Emissions Simulator (MOVES). This simulation package utilizes a statistical database of over 3000 counties in the continental United States in calculating the emissions profile of various vehicle and fuel type combinations, updating the current tables utilized in GREET. Chapter 3 utilizes these efforts in performing a life cycle analysis of a 1974 Volkswagen Super Beetle converted to a plug-in series hybrid. This work utilizes GREET in exploring the WtW fuel use emissions profile, as well as estimating the energy and emissions savings through reusing a number of stock vehicle components in the conversion. A vehicle dynamics model supports this analysis, calculating the average fuel use in a typical city/highway drive cycle. The fourth chapter expands upon this work, analyzing an 800+ vehicle fleet in a comparative analysis between electrified vehicles and their conventional counterparts. This work utilizes four simplified vehicle dynamics models, focusing on ten vehicles with various powertrains and fuel use algorithms. These models calculate the average fuel consumption of these vehicles, employing the GREET model in calculating the emissions profiles on a per-mile and yearly total basis. Furthermore, a full cost analysis of fuel and vehicle combinations demonstrates the economic impacts of electrifying the vehicle fleet. Finally, Chapter 5 seeks to support future research into electrified vehicles for vehicle-to-grid technology, energy storage, and infrastructure control through the design and construction of a small-scale smart grid in collaboration with a previous University of Kansas EcoHawks senior design team. This design consists of a renewable and conventional energy source, a grid load, bulk and dynamic grid storage, and a full sensory and control system. The final design meets the two requirements of a smart grid set forth by the Department of Energy: decentralization of energy production and storage, and providing two-way communication from end users or appliances and the energy network

A systemic framework for monitoring energy performance of urban railways

PhD ThesisGlobal sustainability challenges are particularly acute in urban conurbations which house the majority of the world’s population and where most of the economic activity takes place. Mobility is at the core of this challenge as transport is one of the highest energy consuming and polluting sectors across the globe. Achieving a low environmental impact transport system fit for all is a clear objective. A modal shift to low energy but highly competitive transport modes is a key target. Urban railway systems have the environmental performance and mass transit capability to be the core provider of mobility in metropolitan areas bringing also other benefits e.g. connectivity, cohesion and social inclusivity. Nevertheless, in a very competitive context where all modes are improving their energy performance, it is crucial that urban rail systems enhance their energy conservation levels without jeopardising their service offer. There is a lack of consensus amongst stakeholders on how to assess energy performance of urban rail systems. This void has been extended to the academic literature, where the issue is largely missing. The overall purpose of this thesis is to contribute to energy conservation of urban rail systems by supporting the decisionmaking process leading to the deployment of interventions aimed at improving energy efficiency and optimising its usage. A three-phased methodological triangulation approach has been adopted to address three research questions derived from two research objectives. This research has investigated energy usage, interventions and interdependencies that are governed by the complexity of the socio-technical system that are urban railways. A holistic approach has been developed based on an adaptable systemic monitoring framework and associated methodology enabling i) a multilevel analysis of system energy performance using a set of twenty-two hierarchical indicators and four complementing parameters, ii) an appraisal of candidate energy optimisation interventions and iii) the monitoring of the results of implemented measures. To validate and illustrate its execution, the framework has been applied to five different urban rail systems to assess a total of eleven technical and operational interventions. This has resulted in observing up 3.4% or circa 4 GWh usage reduction at system level when considering the influence of the three technical interventions monitored and up to 4.8% or circa 6.6 GWh when the eight operational interventions are evaluated in conjunction. These outcomes have illustrated the universality of the framework and its adaptability to the particularities of each urban rail system.CleanER-D and OSIRIS grants, both co-funded by the European Commissio

Development of an integrated experimental and numerical methodology for the performance analysis of multiple hybrid electric architectures over different driving cycles

L'abstract è presente nell'allegato / the abstract is in the attachmen