Positron Emission Tomography: Current Challenges and Opportunities for Technological Advances in Clinical and Preclinical Imaging Systems

Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging is based on detecting two time-coincident high-energy photons from the emission of a positronemitting radioisotope. The physics of the emission, and the detection of the coincident photons, give PET imaging unique capabilities for both very high sensitivity and accurate estimation of the in vivo concentration of the radiotracer. PET imaging has been widely adopted as an important clinical modality for oncological, cardiovascular, and neurological applications. PET imaging has also become an important tool in preclinical studies, particularly for investigating murine models of disease and other small-animal models. However, there are several challenges to using PET imaging systems. These include the fundamental trade-offs between resolution and noise, the quantitative accuracy of the measurements, and integration with X-ray computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. In this article, we review how researchers and industry are addressing these challenges.This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health grants R01-CA042593, U01-CA148131, R01CA160253, R01CA169072, and R01CA164371; by Human Frontier Science Program grant RGP0004/2013; and by the Innovative Medicines Initiative under grant agreement 115337, which comprises financial contributions from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007–2013

A portable geometry-independent tomographic system for gamma-ray, a next generation of nuclear waste characterization

One of the main activities of the nuclear industry is the characterisation of radioactive waste based on the detection of gamma radiation. Large volumes of radioactive waste are classified according to their average activity, but often the radioactivity exceeds the maximum allowed by regulators in specific parts of the bulk. In addition, the detection of the radiation is currently based on static detection systems where the geometry of the bulk is fixed and well known. Furthermore, these systems are not portable and depend on the transport of waste to the places where the detection systems are located. However, there are situations where the geometry varies and where moving waste is complex. This is especially true in compromised situations.We present a new model for nuclear waste management based on a portable and geometry-independent tomographic system for three-dimensional image reconstruction for gamma radiation detection. The system relies on a combination of a gamma radiation camera and a visible camera that allows to visualise radioactivity using augmented reality and artificial computer vision techniques. This novel tomographic system has the potential to be a disruptive innovation in the nuclear industry for nuclear waste management

Development, Validation And Implementation Of Multiple Radioactive Particle Tracking Technique

Computer Automated Radioactive Particle Tracking (CARPT) technique has been successfully utilized to measure the velocity profiles and mixing parameters in different multiphase flow systems where a single radioactive tracer is used to track the tagged phase. However, many industrial processes use a wide range of particles with different physical properties where solid particles could vary in size, shape and density. For application in such systems, the capability of current single tracer CARPT can be advanced to track more than one particle simultaneously. Tracking multiple particles will thus enable to track the motion of particles of different size shape and density, determine segregation of particles and probing particle interactions. In this work, a newly developed Multiple Radioactive Particle Tracking technique (M-RPT) used to track two different radioactive tracers is demonstrated. The M-RPT electronics was developed that can differentiate between gamma counts obtained from the different radioactive tracers on the basis of their gamma energy peak. The M-RPT technique was validated by tracking two stationary and moving particles (Sc-46 and Co-60) simultaneously. Finally, M-RPT was successfully implemented to track two phases, solid and liquid, simultaneously in three phase slurry bubble column reactors

Improvements in Cardiac Spect/CT for the Purpose of Tracking Transplanted Cells

Regenerative therapy via stem cell transplantation has received increased attention to help treat the myocardial injury associated with heart disease. Currently, the hybridisation of SPECT with X-ray CT is expanding the utility of SPECT. This thesis compared two SPECT/CT systems for attenuation correction using slow or fast-CT attenuation maps (mu-maps). We then developed a method to localize transplanted cells in relation to compromised blood flow in the myocardium following a myocardial infarction using SPECT/CT. Finally, a method to correct for image truncation was studied for a new SPECT/CT design that incorporated small field-of-view (FOV) detectors. Computer simulations compared gated-SPECT reconstructions using slow-CT and fast-CT mu-maps with gated-CT mu-maps. Using fast-CT mu-maps improved the Root Mean Squared (RMS) error from 4.2% to 4.0%. Three canine experiments were performed comparing SPECT/CT reconstruction using the Infinia/Hawkeye-4 (slow-CT) and Symbia T6 (fast-CT). Canines were euthanized prior to imaging, and then ventilated. The results showed improvements in both RMS errors and correlation coefficients for all canines. A first-pass contrast CT imaging technique can identify regions of myocardial infarction and can be fused with SPECT. Ten canines underwent surgical ligation of the left-anterior-descending artery. Cells were labeled with 111In-tropolone and transplanted into the myocardium. SPECT/CT was performed on day of transplantation, 4, and 10 days post-transplantation. For each imaging session first-pass perfusion CT was performed and successfully delineated the infarct zone. Delayed-enhanced MRI was performed and correlated well with first-pass CT. Contrast-to-noise ratios were calculated for 111In-SPECT and suggested that cells can be followed for 11 effective half-lives. We evaluated a modified SPECT/CT acquisition and reconstruction method for truncated SPECT. Cardiac SPECT/CT scans were acquired in 14 patients. The original projections were truncated to simulate a small FOV acquisition. Data was reconstructed in three ways: non-truncated and standard reconstruction (NTOSEM), which was our gold-standard; truncated and standard reconstruction (TOSEM); and truncated and a modified reconstruction (TMOSEM). Compared with NTOSEM, small FOV imaging incurred an average cardiac count ratio error greater than 100% using TOSEM and 8.9% using TMOSEM. When we plotted NTOSEM against TOSEM and TMOSEM the correlation coefficient was 0.734 and 0.996 respectively

Inter-crystal scatter in positron emission tomography: Identification techniques and effects on reconstructed images for AX-PET demonstrator

La PET es una técnica de imagen en medicina nuclear que permite la visualización in-vivo y en 3D de procesos funcionales en seres vivos. Un escáner PET mide los rayos gamma producidos al aniquilarse un positrón, el cual es emitido por un radioisótopo inyectado al paciente. La eficiencia del sistema es una característica crucial de los escáneres PET de alta resolución dedicados a la imagen del cerebro o de animales pequeños con el fin de obtener una imagen más fiel o de reducir la actividad del radiotrazador, y por consiguiente, la dosis inyectada al paciente. El objetivo de este trabajo de investigación es mejorar la eficiencia y calidad de imagen de un prototipo de escáner PET axial (AX-PET) sin comprometer la resolución espacial. El escáner AX-PET está diseñado para imagen del cerebro humano y consta de varios pisos de cristales centelleadores largos y finos, orientados axialmente, que son leídos individualmente por un fotomultiplicador de silicio. El diseño del detector permite la adquisición de eventos en los que un rayo gamma sufre múltiples interacciones en diferentes cristales: eventos de dispersión inter-cristal (ICS). A diferencia de los eventos más convencionales con una sola interacción (Golden), los eventos ICS son ambiguos debido al desconocimiento de la secuencia de interacción. Por ello, en esta investigación desarrollamos estrategias para la inclusión e identificación de eventos ICS para reconstrucción de imagen y evaluamos el impacto en la eficiencia del sistema y calidad de imagen. Diferentes algoritmos son empleados para seleccionar la primera interacción en un evento ICS basándose en cinemática Compton, sección eficaz de Klein-Nishina, etc., cada cual con una determinada tasa de identificación. Su rendimiento es analizado en base a imágenes reconstruidas de una fuente puntual y tres maniquíes diferentes a través de varias figuras de mérito como coeficiente de recuperación, relación contraste-ruido, visibilidad, etc. El análisis de datos muestra una contribución estadísticamente significante de eventos ICS a la eficiencia del sistema: la sensitividad mejora entre un 25% y 80% con respecto a sólo eventos Golden dependiendo del subtipo de ICS seleccionados para la reconstrucción. Los resultados de la inclusión de coincidencias ICS revelan el incremento de la relación señal-ruido y contraste-ruido, pero una ligera reducción de la resolución espacial incluso para el mejor algoritmo de identificación. En conclusión, el uso de eventos ICS para reconstrucción de imagen es prometedor para medidas de baja actividad (baja estadística), dado que aumenta significativamente la eficiencia del sistema y mejora la calidad de imagen sin perjuicio severo a la resolución espacial.Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine imaging technique that allows in-vivo 3D visualization of functional processes of the body. A PET scanner measures the gamma rays produced during the annihilation of a positron, which is emitted from a radioisotope injected to the patient. System efficiency is a crucial feature of high resolution PET scanners aimed at brain or small animal imaging in order to obtain a more faithful image or reduce the radiotracer activity, hence dose, injected to the patient. The aim of this research work is to improve the efficiency and image quality of an Axial PET scanner prototype (AX-PET) without jeopardizing spatial resolution. The AX-PET scanner is designed for human brain imaging and is based on several layers of long, thin, axially arranged scintillator crystals, which are individually readout by Silicon Photo Multipliers. The detector's design allows acquisition of events in which a gamma ray has multiple interactions in different crystals: inter-crystal scatter (ICS) events. In contrast with more standard single-hit (or Golden) events, ICS events are ambiguous as the interaction sequence is unknown. Therefore, in this investigation we develop strategies for the inclusion and identification of ICS events for image reconstruction and assess the impact on system efficiency and image quality. Different algorithms are used to select the first interaction in an ICS event based on Compton kinematics, Klein-Nishina cross section, etc., each with a certain identification rate. Their performance is analysed on the resulting reconstructed images of a point source and three different phantoms through several figures of merit such as recovery coefficient, contrast to noise ratio, visibility, etc. The data analysis shows a statistically significant contribution of ICS events to system efficiency: a sensitivity improvement between 25% and 80% in comparison with only Golden events depending on the ICS subtypes selected for the reconstruction. The results of the inclusion of ICS coincidences reveal an increase in signal and contrast to noise ratio, but a slight decrease of the spatial resolution even for the best identification algorithm. In conclusion, the use of ICS events for image reconstruction is promising for low activity measurements (low statistics), as it significantly increases the system efficiency and improves image quality without a serious decrease in spatial resolution

A preliminary approach to intelligent x-ray imaging for baggage inspection at airports

Identifying explosives in baggage at airports relies on being able to characterize the materials that make up an X-ray image. If a suspicion is generated during the imaging process (step 1), the image data could be enhanced by adapting the scanning parameters (step 2). This paper addresses the first part of this problem and uses textural signatures to recognize and characterize materials and hence enabling system control. Directional Gabor-type filtering was applied to a series of different X-ray images. Images were processed in such a way as to simulate a line scanning geometry. Based on our experiments with images of industrial standards and our own samples it was found that different materials could be characterized in terms of the frequency range and orientation of the filters. It was also found that the signal strength generated by the filters could be used as an indicator of visibility and optimum imaging conditions predicted

Evaluation of image quality and reconstruction parameters in recent PET-CT and PET-MR systems

In this PhD dissertation, we propose to evaluate the impact of using different PET isotopes for the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) tests performance evaluation of the GE Signa integrated PET/MR. The methods were divided into three closely related categories: NEMA performance measurements, system modelling and evaluation of the image quality of the state-of-the-art of clinical PET scanners. NEMA performance measurements for characterizing spatial resolution, sensitivity, image quality, the accuracy of attenuation and scatter corrections, and noise equivalent count rate (NECR) were performed using clinically relevant and commercially available radioisotopes. Then we modelled the GE Signa integrated PET/MR system using a realistic GATE Monte Carlo simulation and validated it with the result of the NEMA measurements (sensitivity and NECR). Next, the effect of the 3T MR field on the positron range was evaluated for F-18, C-11, O-15, N-13, Ga-68 and Rb-82. Finally, to evaluate the image quality of the state-of-the-art clinical PET scanners, a noise reduction study was performed using a Bayesian Penalized-Likelihood reconstruction algorithm on a time-of-flight PET/CT scanner to investigate whether and to what extent noise can be reduced. The outcome of this thesis will allow clinicians to reduce the PET dose which is especially relevant for young patients. Besides, the Monte Carlo simulation platform for PET/MR developed for this thesis will allow physicists and engineers to better understand and design integrated PET/MR systems