Examining the Determinants of Sexual Violence Among Young, Married Women in Southern India

The prevalence of sexual violence is increasingly being studied in India. Yet the determinants of sexual violence, irrespective of physical violence, remain largely unexplored. Here the authors identify the determinants of sexual violence, and additionally, explore how the presence of physical violence modifies these determinants. A cross-sectional analysis is conducted using baseline data from a longitudinal study involving young married women attending reproductive health clinics in Southern India. A multivariable logistic regression analysis is conducted to first identify determinants of sexual violence and then repeated after stratifying elements based on presence or absence of physical violence identified from participants’ reports. 36% and 50% of the participants report experiencing sexual and physical violence, respectively. After adjusting for other covariates, women’s partners’ characteristics are found most significantly associated with their odds of experiencing sexual violence. These characteristics include husbands’ primary education, employment as drivers, alcohol consumption, and having multiple sex partners. Women’s contribution to household income also increases their odds of experiencing sexual violence by almost twofold; however, if they are solely responsible for “all” household income, the relationship is found to be protective. Physical violence modifies the determinants of sexual violence, and among women not experiencing physical violence, husbands’ primary education and employment as drivers increase women’s odds of experiencing sexual violence nearly threefold, and women who contribute “all” the household income (n = 62) do not experience sexual violence. These relationships are not significant among women experiencing physical violence. Study findings improve the understanding of the determinants of sexual violence. Future research is needed to examine the risk factors for different types of GBV independently and to tease apart the differences in risk factors depending on women’s experiences. The significance of male partners’ characteristics warrants in-depth research, and in order to promote gender-equitable norms, future interventions need to focus on male behaviors and men’s day-to-day survival challenges, all of which likely influence conflicts in marital relationships

Gender-Based Violence is a growing problem in India

This paper uses Indian household surveys and crime data, to study Gender-Based Violence (GBV): husband's domestic violence, to control wife/partner. Different types of violence are examined separately, using 2005-6 Demographic and Health Survey & other surveys from 1992 to 2017. Much domestic violence seems to be husbands attempting to control wives. India's 2005 "Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act" appears partially successful in reducing GBV. There is evidence of a long-term increase in GBV risk, in India: some possible explanations are investigated

Sexual Violence and Women Empowerment in India: Findings from a Nationally Representative Sample Survey

Promoting gender equality and the empowerment of women and elimination of violence against women was recognised as an important component in the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Intimate partner violence is one of the most common forms of gender based violence throughout the world. Empowering women is an effective measure required to tackle the problem of domestic violence. There are various parameters that are used to measure women empowerment like education, work force participation, women’s decision making capacity in the family etc. In this paper we have analysed the relationship between women’s experience of spousal sexual violence and women empowerment using the ecological model of domestic violence proposed by Heise. We have used the data of the 4th National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) conducted in India in 2015–2016. Our results show that common empowerment related factors like education was not significantly associated with women’s experience of sexual abuse. Moreover, the likelihood of facing sexual abuse by husband was found higher among working women. We observe that relational and contextual factors like husband’s assertion of control over wife, cultural norms that condone wife abuse significantly increased women’s likelihood of experiencing sexual violence by husband

The Intersection of Intimate Partner Violence and HIV/AIDS Among Women in India: Moving Beyond the Individual

Objective: Intimate partner violence and HIV/AIDS are two intersecting and significant public health issues impacting the health status of women living in India. Although the intersection of IPV and HIV/AIDS has been highlighted as relevant in understanding HIV transmission patterns among women, current prevention strategies have largely failed to address disease transmission. Multiple methods were conducted with the primary objectives to explore the multi-level factors connecting risk for HIV infection and incidence of IPV among women living in India, create a conceptual model outlining potential mechanisms and pathways involved, and discuss the implications for future research and practice. Methods: A comprehensive literature search of IPV and HIV/AIDS among women living in India resulted in the synthesis of 24 research studies. The final set of literature was analyzed and organized by thematic results related to content and research design. In addition, participant observation fieldwork took place throughout June to August 2011 involving discussions with 27 key informants to learn more about the context of IPV and HIV/AIDS among women living in Andhra Pradesh, India. Discussion notes were summarized and organized based on recurring themes. Results: More than one third of married women have experienced IPV by their husbands in India, where women now account for 40% of total HIV/AIDS infections. Findings indicate that abused wives face heightened HIV risk based both on an increased likelihood of HIV infection among husbands and elevated HIV transmission within abusive relationships. HIV/AIDS and IPV are linked, and further confounded by many cultural beliefs, norms, and social institutions that legitimize and therefore perpetuate violence against women. Conclusion: IPV and HIV infection among Indian women is a multifaceted issue subject to an interaction among individual, relationship and situational, and sociocultural factors. Several recommendations are made to strengthen further research, practice, and policy addressing the intersection of IPV and HIV infection among women living in India. Qualitative research design, specifically community-based participatory approaches, and sound IPV measurement are required for the design of culturally appropriate interventions specific to the realities and needs of Indian women in order to prevent and treat these mutually reinforcing epidemics

Why do men rape? Understanding the determinants of rapes in India.

The study examines the determinants of rapes in India using state level data for the time period 2001–2015. The panel model analysis indicates that there is no impact of education and economic growth, pointing towards a larger role of social and cultural factors in this context. The effect of deterrence variables (such as the number of police stations) is non-existent, possibly pointing towards the incompetency of the police force. Social attitude towards women emerged as the most robust predictor of the extent of rapes in India. We argue that the fundamental problem lies in the misogyny deeply rooted in the Indian societyN/

Transnational feminist analysis of intimate partner violence in South Asia: A scoping review

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) has been recognized as a global public health concern affecting millions of people across the world. Women in South Asian countries of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh are increasingly vulnerable to physical, sexual, and emotional abuse. The purpose of this study is to conduct a scoping review of the literature on the available interventions and support systems provided to survivors of IPV through a Transnational Feminist lens. This thesis offers a critical and grounded engagement with literature from South Asia that challenges a Western centered understanding of women from ‘Third World’ cultures and underscores the importance of feminist engagement with larger structures that keep women disempowered. This thesis details the search methods, inclusion criteria and the summary of results.12 articles were included for final analysis. Due to the growing epidemic of IPV and the limited literature available on this issue, specifically examining the impact of interventions and support systems on survivors of IPV, the findings of this review support the need for an examination of systemic injustices impacting women and increased collaboration across sectors for a unified response to IPV

Sexual Abuse

Sexual assaults are special crimes that require an inter-multidisciplinary approach. This book brings together the work of distinguished scientists on sex crimes and their prevention. It is organized into two sections on the behavioral aspects of sexual abuse/assault and the methods of responding to these types of cases. Chapters address such topics as child abuse, dating violence in the online era, marital rape, and much more

Uncertainties in gender violence epidemiology

This thesis contains 11 papers published in peer reviewed journals between 2006 and 2012. The papers focused on gender violence research methods, the prevalence of risk factors for gender violence, and its association with HIV and maternal morbidity. The accompanying commentary addresses three uncertainties that affect gender violence epidemiology. These are missing data, clustering and unrecognised causal relationships. In this thesis I ask: Can we reduce these three uncertainties in gender violence epidemiology? A systematic review of the intimate partner violence literature over the last decade found that few epidemiological studies manage missing data in gender violence questionnaires in a satisfactory way. Focus groups in Zambia, Nigeria and Pakistan confirmed that missing data lead to underestimation of gender violence prevalence. A partial solution to this problem was to place greater emphasis on interviewer training. In a reanalysis of the data from the published papers I compared different approaches to dealing with clustering in gender violence epidemiology. Generalised linear mixed models and other methods found that clustering potentially plays a causal role. This can be important in interventions that target a community at large, and act throughout the cluster. In a reanalysis of several datasets I show how a history of gender violence influences measurement of many associations related to HIV, possibly due to an unanticipated role of gender violence in the causal pathway with HIV. In conclusion, it is possible to reduce the uncertainties associated with missing data, clustering, and unrecognised causality in gender violence epidemiology

A comparative analysis of domestic violence against women in Australia and Bangladesh : government policies, legislation and organisational responses

This is a comparative study of Domestic Violence (DV) between Australia (Victoria) and Bangladesh. It examined the interrelationship between factors which contribute to DV, government policies and legislation developed to deal with DV, and organisational responders (police and DV Crisis Support Services) implementing strategies and remedies in the policies and legislation. A comparative country case study strategy was adopted utilising triangulation of methods of data collection including an analysis of the countries’ respective policies and legislation and conducting in-depth interviews with key responder personnel. The conceptual framework identified policies and legislation as Steering Media, which influenced a society’s beliefs embedded in the Lifeworld, and which guided the actions of responders to DV in the two different countries’ Systems. Differences and similarities were found between the two countries. The main common factor was the identification of gender inequality as an underlying factor causing DV. Some social and cultural factors exist in both countries such as poverty. Some factors were specific to Australia, such as the consumption of alcohol; and in Bangladesh, such as dowry and dependency on men. Of significance is that gender equality is enshrined in the Bangladeshi Constitution, while Australia relies on legislation that could potentially be changed to disadvantage women. Differences revealed include identification of victims and perpetrators, with Bangladesh specifically naming women and children as victims but never the perpetrator and Australia (Victoria) naming any family member as victim or perpetrator. Also, responders deal with DV victims and perpetrators differently according to the policies and legislation of both countries. This research has implications for both theory and practice in both countries. The findings have potential to contribute to changes in policy and legislation related to DV as well as in the practice level by responders across both countries, learning from each other in the process.Doctor of Philosoph

“Beyond Black and Blue” Intimate Partner Violence as a form of Family Violence Against Women and Common Mental Disorders in Mumbai informal settlements

The thesis investigates family violence against women living in informal settlements in Mumbai, and its associations with mental health. Globally and in India, a third of women experience violence from an intimate partner in their lifetime, an estimate that would be higher if it accounted for other perpetrators within the family. The thesis includes qualitative and quantitative studies. The quantitative study was a survey of 482 women that investigated violence in detail, including its types, perpetrators, and timescales. Symptoms of common mental disorders were assessed with the General Health Questionnaire-12 and levels of self-esteem with the Rosenberg self-esteem questionnaire. Associations were explored through multivariable linear and ordinal logistic regression, adjusted for socio-demographic covariates. The qualitative study included semi-structured individual interviews and focus group discussions with 33 women, exploring narratives of violence, responses, coping, and resilience. Analysis took a Framework approach. The prevalence of violence was high - 44% over a lifetime - but in line with other national surveys. More women reported emotional violence than other forms. In-laws were the main perpetrators of emotional and economic violence, and husbands of physical and sexual violence. Emotional violence showed the strongest positive association with symptoms of common mental disorders and lower self-esteem. In the qualitative study, women described patterns of violence that often included the marital family as perpetrators. Responses to violence included feelings, thoughts, and behaviours ranging between active and passive. Women described a ceiling of tolerance that influenced their responses to violence and was informed by their context and previous experiences. The thesis adds to the current literature by exploring violence in detail and combining survey data with women’s narratives. It highlights the need to further investigate family violence and emotional violence, particularly in other South Asian settings where patterns of patrilocal residence and joint families are common