Differential Maturation of Brain Signal Complexity in the Human Auditory and Visual System

Brain development carries with it a large number of structural changes at the local level which impact on the functional interactions of distributed neuronal networks for perceptual processing. Such changes enhance information processing capacity, which can be indexed by estimation of neural signal complexity. Here, we show that during development, EEG signal complexity increases from one month to 5 years of age in response to auditory and visual stimulation. However, the rates of change in complexity were not equivalent for the two responses. Infants’ signal complexity for the visual condition was greater than auditory signal complexity, whereas adults showed the same level of complexity to both types of stimuli. The differential rates of complexity change may reflect a combination of innate and experiential factors on the structure and function of the two sensory systems

Cortical Processing of Global Form, Motion and Biological Motion Under Low Light Levels

Advances in potential treatments for rod and cone dystrophies have increased the need to understand the contributions of rods and cones to higher-level cortical vision. We measured form, motion and biological motion coherence thresholds and EEG steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEP) responses under light conditions ranging from photopic to scotopic. Low light increased thresholds for all three kinds of stimuli; however, global form thresholds were relatively more impaired than those for global motion or biological motion. SSVEP responses to coherent global form and motion were reduced in low light, and motion responses showed a shift in topography from the midline to more lateral locations. Contrast sensitivity measures confirmed that basic visual processing was also affected by low light. However, comparison with contrast sensitivity function (CSF) reductions achieved by optical blur indicated that these were insufficient to explain the pattern of results, although the temporal properties of the rod system may also play a role. Overall, mid-level processing in extra-striate areas is differentially affected by light level, in ways that cannot be explained in terms of low-level spatiotemporal sensitivity. A topographical shift in scotopic motion SSVEP responses may reflect either changes to inhibitory feedback mechanisms between V1 and extra-striate regions or a reduction of input to the visual cortex. These results provide insight into how higher-level cortical vision is normally organised in absence of cone input, and provide a basis for comparison with patients with cone dystrophies, before and after treatments aiming to restore cone function

Neural correlates of texture and contour integration in children with autism spectrum disorders

AbstractIn this study, we have used an electrophysiological paradigm to investigate the neural correlates of the visual integration of local signals across space to generate global percepts in a group of low functioning autistic kids. We have analyzed the amplitude of key harmonics of the Visual Evoked Potentials (VEPs) recorded while participants observed orientation-based texture and contour stimuli, forming coherent global patterns, alternating with visual patterns in which the same number of local elements were randomly oriented in order to loose any globally organized feature. Comparing the results of the clinical sample with those obtained in an age-matched control group, we have observed that in the texture conditions the 1st and 3rd harmonics, containing signature of global form processing (Norcia, Pei, Bonneh, Hou, Sampath, & Pettet, 2005), were present in the control group, while in the experimental group only the 1st harmonic was present. In the Contour condition the 1st harmonic was not present for both groups while the 3rd harmonic was significantly present in the control group but absent in the group with autism. Moreover, the amount of organization required to elicit significant 1st harmonic response in the texture condition was higher in the clinical group. The present results bring additional support to the idea that texture and contour processing are supported by independent mechanisms in normal vision. Autistic vision would thus be characterized by a preserved, perhaps weaker texture mechanism, possibly mediated by feedback interactions between visual areas, and by a disfunction of the mechanism supporting contour processing, possibly mediated by long-range intra-cortical connections. Within this framework, the residual ability to detect contours shown in psychophysical studies could be due to the contribution of the texture mechanism to contour processing

Early childhood development of visual texture segregation in full-term and preterm children

AbstractTo date, very little is known about the normal development trajectory of visual texture segregation, or how it is affected by preterm birth. The goal of this study was to characterize the development of visual texture segregation using texture segregation visual evoked potentials (tsVEPs) in children born full-term and children born preterm without major neurological impairment. Forty-five full-term and 43 preterm children were tested at either 12, 24 or 36months of age (corrected age for prematurity at 12 and 24months old). VEPs were obtained using two lower-level stimuli defined by orientation (oriVEP) and two higher-level stimuli defined by texture (texVEP). TsVEP was obtained by dividing by two the subtraction of oriVEP from texVEP. Results show a clear maturation of the processes underlying visual texture segregation in the full-term group, with a significant N2 latency reduction between 12 and 36months of age for all conditions. Significant N2 amplitude reduction was observed for oriVEP between 12 and 24months, as well as for texVEP between 12 and 24months, and 12 and 36months. Comparison between full-term and preterm children indicated significantly lower N2 amplitude for the preterm group at 12months for oriVEP and texVEP. These differences were no longer apparent at 24months of age, suggesting that children born preterm catch up with their full-term counterparts somewhere between 12 and 24months of age. Our results appear to reflect a maturational delay in preterm children in both lower-level and higher-level visual processing during, at least, early childhood

Shape Representation in Primate Visual Area 4 and Inferotemporal Cortex

The representation of contour shape is an essential component of object recognition, but the cortical mechanisms underlying it are incompletely understood, leaving it a fundamental open question in neuroscience. Such an understanding would be useful theoretically as well as in developing computer vision and Brain-Computer Interface applications. We ask two fundamental questions: “How is contour shape represented in cortex and how can neural models and computer vision algorithms more closely approximate this?” We begin by analyzing the statistics of contour curvature variation and develop a measure of salience based upon the arc length over which it remains within a constrained range. We create a population of V4-like cells – responsive to a particular local contour conformation located at a specific position on an object’s boundary – and demonstrate high recognition accuracies classifying handwritten digits in the MNIST database and objects in the MPEG-7 Shape Silhouette database. We compare the performance of the cells to the “shape-context” representation (Belongie et al., 2002) and achieve roughly comparable recognition accuracies using a small test set. We analyze the relative contributions of various feature sensitivities to recognition accuracy and robustness to noise. Local curvature appears to be the most informative for shape recognition. We create a population of IT-like cells, which integrate specific information about the 2-D boundary shapes of multiple contour fragments, and evaluate its performance on a set of real images as a function of the V4 cell inputs. We determine the sub-population of cells that are most effective at identifying a particular category. We classify based upon cell population response and obtain very good results. We use the Morris-Lecar neuronal model to more realistically illustrate the previously explored shape representation pathway in V4 – IT. We demonstrate recognition using spatiotemporal patterns within a winnerless competition network with FitzHugh-Nagumo model neurons. Finally, we use the Izhikevich neuronal model to produce an enhanced response in IT, correlated with recognition, via gamma synchronization in V4. Our results support the hypothesis that the response properties of V4 and IT cells, as well as our computer models of them, function as robust shape descriptors in the object recognition process

Le développement visuel et cognitif chez les enfants nés à terme ou prématurément

Au cours des 25 dernières années, les recherches sur le développement visuel chez l’humain à l’aide de l’électrophysiologie cérébrale et des potentiels évoqués visuels (PEV) ont permis d’explorer plusieurs fonctions associées au cortex visuel. Néanmoins, le développement de certaines d’entre elles (p. ex. segmentation des textures), tout comme les effets de la prématurité sur celles-ci, sont des aspects qui nécessitent d’être davantage étudiés. Par ailleurs, compte tenu de l’importance de la vision dans le développement de certaines fonctions cognitives (p. ex. lecture, visuomotricité), de plus en plus de recherches s’intéressent aux relations entre la vision et la cognition. Les objectifs généraux de la présente thèse étaient d’étudier le développement visuel chez les enfants nés à terme et nés prématurément à l’aide de l’électrophysiologie, puis de documenter les impacts de la prématurité sur le développement visuel et cognitif. Deux études ont été réalisées. La première visait à examiner, chez des enfants nés prématurément, le développement des voies visuelles primaires durant la première année de vie et en début de scolarisation, ainsi qu’à documenter leur profil cognitif et comportemental. À l’aide d’un devis semi-longitudinal, dix enfants nés prématurément ont été évalués à l’âge de six mois (âge corrigé) et à 7-8 ans en utilisant des PEV, et des épreuves cognitives et comportementales à l’âge scolaire. Leurs résultats ont été comparés à ceux de 10 enfants nés à terme appariés pour l’âge. À six mois, aucune différence de latence ou d’amplitude des ondes N1 et P1 n’a été trouvée entre les groupes. À l’âge scolaire, les enfants nés prématurément montraient, comparativement aux enfants nés à terme, une plus grande amplitude de N1 dans la condition P-préférentielle et dans celle co-stimulant les voies M et P, et de P1 (tendance) dans la condition M-préférentielle. Aucune différence n’a été trouvée entre les groupes aux mesures cognitives et comportementales. Ces résultats suggèrent qu’une naissance prématurée exerce un impact sur le développement des voies visuelles centrales. L’objectif de la seconde étude était de documenter le développement des processus de segmentation visuelle des textures durant la petite enfance chez des enfants nés à terme et nés prématurément à l’aide des PEV et d’un devis transversal. Quarante-cinq enfants nés à terme et 43 enfants nés prématurément ont été évalués à 12, 24 ou 36 mois (âge corrigé pour les prématurés à 12 et 24 mois). Les résultats indiquaient une diminution significative de la latence de la composante N2 entre 12 et 36 mois en réponse à l’orientation, à la texture et à la segmentation des textures, ainsi qu’une diminution significative d’amplitude pour l’orientation entre 12 et 24 mois, et pour la texture entre 12 et 24 mois, et 12 et 36 mois. Les comparaisons entre les enfants nés à terme et ceux nés prématurément démontraient une amplitude de N2 réduite chez ces derniers à 12 mois pour l’orientation et la texture. Bien que ces différences ne fussent plus apparentes à 24 mois, nos résultats semblent refléter un délai de maturation des processus visuel de bas et de plus haut niveau chez les enfants nés prématurément, du moins, pendant la petite enfance. En conclusion, nos résultats indiquent que la prématurité, même sans atteinte neurologique importante, altère le développement des fonctions visuelles à certaines périodes du développement et mettent en évidence l’importance d’en investiguer davantage les impacts (p. ex. cognitifs, comportementaux, scolaires) à moyen et long-terme.Over the past 25 years, researches about vision development in humans using cerebral electrophysiology and visual evoked potentials (VEPs) have helped to document several functions related to the visual cortex. However, the development of some of these features (e.g. texture segregation), or how it is affected by a preterm birth, are remaining aspects that need to be further explored. Moreover, given the importance of vision in the development of many cognitive functions (e.g. reading, visual-motor skills), more studies are becoming interested in the relation between vision and cognition. The general objectives of this thesis were to study vision development in children born full-term and born preterm using electrophysiology, and to document the impacts of preterm birth on visual and cognitive development. Two studies were realized. The aim of the first study was to investigate the development of central visual pathways in children born preterm during the first year of life and at school-age, and to establish their cognitive and behavioral profile at school age. Using a semi-longitudinal study design, 10 children born preterm were assessed at six months and at 7-8 years old with visual evoked potentials (VEPs) at both time points and cognitive and behavioral tests at school-age. Their results were compared to those of 10 age-matched children born full-term. At six months’ corrected age, we found no significant differences between preterm and full-term groups for either amplitude or latency of N1 and P1 components. At school-age, the preterm group manifested significantly higher N1 amplitudes in the preferential P and the co-stimulating M-P conditions, and tended to show higher P1 amplitudes in the preferential M condition, in comparison to the full-term group. We found no significant differences in cognitive and behavioral measures at school-age. These results suggest that preterm birth impacts on visual pathways development. The aim of the second study was to characterize the development of visual texture segregation processes during early childhood in children born full-term and children born preterm using VEPs and a cross-sectional study design. Forty-five full-term and 43 preterm children were tested at either 12, 24 or 36 months of age (corrected age for prematurity at 12 and 24 months old). Results show a significant N2 latency reduction between 12 and 36 months of age in response to orientation, texture, and texture segregation stimulus conditions and a significant N2 amplitude reduction for orientation between 12 and 24 months, as well as for texture between 12 and 24 months, and 12 and 36 months. Comparison between full-term and preterm children indicated significantly lower N2 amplitude for the preterm group at 12 months for orientation and texture. Although these differences were no longer apparent at 24 months of age, our results appear to reflect a maturational delay in preterm children in both lower-level and higher-level visual processing during, at least, early childhood. In conclusion, our results indicate that preterm birth, even without significant neurological impairment, has an adverse effect on the development of visual functions at certain times during child development and therefore, highlight the importance to further investigate its medium and long term effects (ex. on cognition, behavior, or at school)

Étude du traitement visuel simple et complexe chez les enfants autistes

Les personnes ayant un trouble du spectre autistique (TSA) manifestent des particularités perceptives. En vision, des travaux influents chez les adultes ont mené à l’élaboration d’un modèle explicatif du fonctionnement perceptif autistique qui suggère que l’efficacité du traitement visuel varie en fonction de la complexité des réseaux neuronaux impliqués (Hypothèse spécifique à la complexité). Ainsi, lorsque plusieurs aires corticales sont recrutées pour traiter un stimulus complexe (e.g., modulations de texture; attributs de deuxième ordre), les adultes autistes démontrent une sensibilité diminuée. À l’inverse, lorsque le traitement repose principalement sur le cortex visuel primaire V1 (e.g., modulations locales de luminance; attributs de premier ordre), leur sensibilité est augmentée (matériel statique) ou intacte (matériel dynamique). Cette dissociation de performance est spécifique aux TSA et peut s’expliquer, entre autre, par une connectivité atypique au sein de leur cortex visuel. Les mécanismes neuronaux précis demeurent néanmoins méconnus. De plus, on ignore si cette signature perceptuelle est présente à l’enfance, information cruciale pour les théories perceptives de l’autisme. Le premier volet de cette thèse cherche à vérifier, à l’aide de la psychophysique et l’électrophysiologie, si la double dissociation de performance entre les attributs statiques de premier et deuxième ordre se retrouve également chez les enfants autistes d’âge scolaire. Le second volet vise à évaluer chez les enfants autistes l’intégrité des connexions visuelles descendantes impliquées dans le traitement des textures. À cet effet, une composante électrophysiologique reflétant principalement des processus de rétroaction corticale a été obtenue lors d’une tâche de ségrégation des textures. Les résultats comportementaux obtenus à l’étude 1 révèlent des seuils sensoriels similaires entre les enfants typiques et autistes à l’égard des stimuli définis par des variations de luminance et de texture. Quant aux données électrophysiologiques, il n’y a pas de différence de groupe en ce qui concerne le traitement cérébral associé aux stimuli définis par des variations de luminance. Cependant, contrairement aux enfants typiques, les enfants autistes ne démontrent pas une augmentation systématique d’activité cérébrale en réponse aux stimuli définis par des variations de texture pendant les fenêtres temporelles préférentiellement associées au traitement de deuxième ordre. Ces différences d’activation émergent après 200 ms et engagent les aires visuelles extrastriées des régions occipito-temporales et pariétales. Concernant la connectivité cérébrale, l’étude 2 indique que les connexions visuelles descendantes sont fortement asymétriques chez les enfants autistes, en défaveur de la région occipito-temporale droite. Ceci diffère des enfants typiques pour qui le signal électrophysiologique reflétant l’intégration visuo-corticale est similaire entre l’hémisphère gauche et droit du cerveau. En somme, en accord avec l’hypothèse spécifique à la complexité, la représentation corticale du traitement de deuxième ordre (texture) est atypiquement diminuée chez les enfants autistes, et un des mécanismes cérébraux impliqués est une altération des processus de rétroaction visuelle entre les aires visuelles de haut et bas niveau. En revanche, contrairement aux résultats obtenus chez les adultes, il n’y a aucun indice qui laisse suggérer la présence de mécanismes supérieurs pour le traitement de premier ordre (luminance) chez les enfants autistes.Atypical perceptual information processing is commonly described in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). In the visual modality, influential work with autistic adults suggests altered connectivity within specialized local networks defining the response properties of stimulus-driven mechanisms. This has led to the development of a hypothesis that stipulates that the efficiency of autistic visual perception is contingent on the complexity of the neural network involved (Complexity-specific hypothesis). When several cortical areas must communicate with each other (as in texture-defined perception, also called second-order), reduced sensitivity to visual input is observed in autistic individuals. In contrast, when visual processing predominately relies on the primary visual cortex V1 (as in luminance-defined perception, also called first-order), their sensitivity is either enhanced (stationary stimuli) or intact (moving stimuli). This dissociation in performance is unique to ASD and suggests atypical connectivity within their visual cortex. The precise type of neural alteration remains unknown, however. In addition, studies focusing on younger individuals are needed to define the developmental trajectories of perceptual abilities in autism. This issue is crucial for perceptual theories of ASD. The first experiment aims to investigate whether the dissociation regarding first- and second-order spatial vision is also present in school-aged children with autism. We combined the use of behavioural (psychophysics) and neuroimaging (visual evoked potentials: VEPs) methods. The second experiment was designed to assess the integrity of one type of neural connections that are known to be involved in texture processing: feedback processes from extrastriate areas towards lower hierarchical levels (V1). As such, we used a visual texture segregation task and isolated a texture-segregation specific VEP component that mainly reflects feedback modulation in the visual cortex. Behavioural measures from the first experiment do not reveal differences in visual thresholds between typically developing and autistic children for both luminance- and texture-defined stimuli. With respect to electrophysiology, there is no group difference in brain activity associated with luminance-defined stimuli. However, unlike typical children, autistic children do not reliably show reliable enhancements of brain activity in response to texture-defined stimuli during time-windows more closely associated with second-order processing. These differences emerge after 200 msec post-stimulation and mainly involve extrastriate areas located over occipito-temporal and parietal scalp areas. Regarding the second experiment, the texture-segregation specific VEP component is found to be greatly diminished over the right as compared to the left occipito-lateral cortex in autism, while it shows no hemispheric asymmetry in typically developing children. In summary, in line with the complexity-specific hypothesis, cortical representation of second-order attributes (texture) is atypically reduced in autistic children. This thesis further reveals that altered feedback from extrastriate visual areas to lower areas (V1) is one of the neuronal mechanisms involved in atypical texture processing. In contrast, contrary to the results obtained in adults with autism, first-order vision (luminance) is not found to be superior in autistic children

Extrastriate form and motion processing in cone dysfunction and normal vision

Cone disorders result in poor visual acuity and colour blindness. While previous studies have investigated low-level vision, little is known about how cone loss impacts on extrastriate vision. This thesis used behavioural psychophysics and steady-state VEP (SSVEP) to examine effects of cone loss on coherent form, coherent motion and biological motion perception. Chapter one introduces the topic and background literature. Chapter two outlines the methods used within this thesis. Chapter three investigates the impact of simulated low-vision on form and motion perception. Normally sighted participants completed behavioural and SSVEP tests under blurred conditions. Blur led to reductions in perceptual sensitivity and coherence-related cortical signals in all three tasks, with coherent form perception faring the worst. Chapter four describes collection of control data for subsequent comparison with patient groups: behavioural and SSVEP measures under differing light levels chosen to stimulate rods and/or cones. The fifth and sixth chapters examine extrastriate vision in patients with stationary and progressive cone disorders. Comparisons of patients and controls on scotopic performance, mediated by rods reveal the extent to which cortical visual processing may have developed atypically in this group. Behavioural results in chapter 5 show that even at scotopic levels, cone disorder patients show some perceptual and SSVEP impairments compared to controls. Progressive patients show scotopic impairments on all three tests while stationary patients have impairments on coherent form and motion but not biological motion tests. Scotopic contrast sensitivity was also measured to check if extrastriate deficits could be explained by low-level deficits. Chapter six examines SSVEP results in the stationary patient group. Patients showed reduced VEP amplitudes relative to controls and there was some evidence of atypical motion topography. Results suggest that atypical photoreceptor function can affect the development and function of extrastriate vision. Potential advances in treatments for genetic visual disorders raise questions regarding neural plasticity, including the extent to which cortical visual processing can be reorganised following restoration of photoreceptor function