Capital, labour and the S.A. State: 1939-1952

African Studies Seminar series. Paper presented September, 1978This paper is essentially a summary of part of a dissertation I am preparing for a M. Soc. Science degree. The primary focus is on the labour movement in South Africa during the forties, but as is shown below, to understand the fortunes of labour one has to also evaluate the role of Capital and the State. My initial reason for choosing to investigate the 1940 - 1950 period was that the state during these years was prepared to offer a measure of statutory recognition to African unions. Another consideration was that there was a good deal of labour unrest in the mid-forties. The struggle between Capital and Labour intensified during these years, the like of which had not been seen since the early 1920's. For these and other reasons the 1940's must be an important period to investigate, yet little work has been completed to date. This acted as an additional stimulus to me

Comparative analyses reveal discrepancies among results of commonly used methods for Anopheles gambiaemolecular form identification

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p><it>Anopheles gambiae </it>M and S molecular forms, the major malaria vectors in the Afro-tropical region, are ongoing a process of ecological diversification and adaptive lineage splitting, which is affecting malaria transmission and vector control strategies in West Africa. These two incipient species are defined on the basis of single nucleotide differences in the IGS and ITS regions of multicopy rDNA located on the X-chromosome. A number of PCR and PCR-RFLP approaches based on form-specific SNPs in the IGS region are used for M and S identification. Moreover, a PCR-method to detect the M-specific insertion of a short interspersed transposable element (<it>SINE200</it>) has recently been introduced as an alternative identification approach. However, a large-scale comparative analysis of four widely used PCR or PCR-RFLP genotyping methods for M and S identification was never carried out to evaluate whether they could be used interchangeably, as commonly assumed.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>The genotyping of more than 400 <it>A. gambiae </it>specimens from nine African countries, and the sequencing of the IGS-amplicon of 115 of them, highlighted discrepancies among results obtained by the different approaches due to different kinds of biases, which may result in an overestimation of MS putative hybrids, as follows: i) incorrect match of M and S specific primers used in the allele specific-PCR approach; ii) presence of polymorphisms in the recognition sequence of restriction enzymes used in the PCR-RFLP approaches; iii) incomplete cleavage during the restriction reactions; iv) presence of different copy numbers of M and S-specific IGS-arrays in single individuals in areas of secondary contact between the two forms.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>The results reveal that the PCR and PCR-RFLP approaches most commonly utilized to identify <it>A. gambiae </it>M and S forms are not fully interchangeable as usually assumed, and highlight limits of the actual definition of the two molecular forms, which might not fully correspond to the two <it>A. gambiae </it>incipient species in their entire geographical range. These limits are discussed and operational suggestions on the choice of the most convenient method for large-scale M- and S-form identification are provided, also taking into consideration technical aspects related to the epidemiological characteristics of different study areas.</p

Ecological and genetic relationships of the Forest-M form among chromosomal and molecular forms of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p><it>Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto</it>, one of the principal vectors of malaria, has been divided into two subspecific groups, known as the M and S molecular forms. Recent studies suggest that the M form found in Cameroon is genetically distinct from the M form found in Mali and elsewhere in West Africa, suggesting further subdivision within that form.</p> <p>Methods</p> <p>Chromosomal, microsatellite and geographic/ecological evidence are synthesized to identify sources of genetic polymorphism among chromosomal and molecular forms of the malaria vector <it>Anopheles gambiae s.s</it>.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Cytogenetically the Forest M form is characterized as carrying the standard chromosome arrangement for six major chromosomal inversions, namely 2La, 2Rj, 2Rb, 2Rc, 2Rd, and 2Ru. Bayesian clustering analysis based on molecular form and chromosome inversion polymorphisms as well as microsatellites describe the Forest M form as a distinct population relative to the West African M form (Mopti-M form) and the S form. The Forest-M form was the most highly diverged of the <it>An. gambiae s.s</it>. groups based on microsatellite markers. The prevalence of the Forest M form was highly correlated with precipitation, suggesting that this form prefers much wetter environments than the Mopti-M form.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>Chromosome inversions, microsatellite allele frequencies and habitat preference all indicate that the Forest M form of <it>An. gambiae </it>is genetically distinct from the other recognized forms within the taxon <it>Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto</it>. Since this study covers limited regions of Cameroon, the possibility of gene flow between the Forest-M form and Mopti-M form cannot be rejected. However, association studies of important phenotypes, such as insecticide resistance and refractoriness against malaria parasites, should take into consideration this complex population structure.</p

Direction & Dilemma of Tropical Oral Health: a position paper

A number of tropical and communicable diseases are evident as oral manifestations. The tropical and communicable disease of oral health concern is an issue because, not only it is restricted to tropical countries, it is also affecting an underserved population of developed countries. Cross-border transmission of communicable diseases of tropical countries is an agenda where the number of tropical diseases, manifested with oral lesions, has not been taken into consideration by oral health care providers for timely identification and setting a goal for prevention and control of transmission at home and abroad. Moreover, every developed country has underserved populations that are prone to develop communicable oral diseases/TODs like tropical countries. The underserved population in developed countries are also experiencing higher incidence rate of communicable diseases which are not necessarily due to cross-border transmission, but related to their poor life-style and other prevailing factors of inequalities. However, the type of communicable diseases is dependent on the mode of transmission and progression; it may be contagious, vector borne or environmentally transmitted. Using TRIP (copy available at ICTOH*), I have searched and collated information anecdotally to understand the situation of the tropical oral diseases. First, we need to define what are tropical oral diseases? On this issue we had several discussions and interactions and reviewing of reports. We concluded that the tropical oral diseases largely cover communicable diseases which are mostly prevalent in the tropical countries. Also non-communicable diseases of life-threatening nature, those that are widely prevalent in the tropical countries, such as oral cancer and pre-cancer (in SE Asia), Noma (in Africa) could be taken into consideration to be identified as a category of tropical oral diseases (TODs). Moreover, till date, we are not able to rule out precisely, any possibility of mutational transmission of communicable disease(s) of oral health concern. Therefore, although all the communicable diseases have an infective nature, we cannot ignore the potential of inheritance factor which may exist irrespective of tropical and non-tropical locations, globally. To reduce the inequalities and improve prevention, including consistent clinical management (tertiary care), our oral health care providers may need to be adequately equipped to combat TODs. There are various oral diseases and conditions which fall into the category of ‘TODs,’ that need to be detected and managed by the general dental practitioners. They need to be able to ascertain when they should refer the critical TODs/cases to a specialist in oral medicine and/or surgery or a physician. Many of these disease (TODs) conditions are manifested with similar features and therefore it becomes almost impossible to identify these diseases clinically for definite diagnosis. In order to ensure that dental practitioners are able to tackle TODs appropriately and efficiently, development of appropriate measures to tackle TODs, in both clinical and community settings is necessary. The development of clinical databases and diagnostic test reports, carried out in the tropical countries is therefore highly recommended. The pooling of resources and clinical knowledge for early detection (required for early prevention and appropriate management of TODs) should therefore be an important point of consideration. I also strongly suggest developing a framework convention to recognize the TODs globally through a realistic strategic approach. Another very important component is development of research specifically in the areas of TODs. In the 1st International working group meeting we had discussed and taken resolution which had been published as a declaration from Poole, England. We have already started to develop a database in part of India, Bangladesh, Sudan, and Jordan. Therefore, it is our responsibility and commitment to put our efforts to pursuing need-based researches on the priority areas of TODs. The identification of the TOD priority research and the establishment of a research team with a lead will be a significant shot in the arm in the process of developing TOH and may generate the momentum which will ultimately lead to the further development of this area. Therefore, in this meeting I suggest the development of a research team(s) by a lead, and to work for securing grants-in –aids, nationally and internationally. We have started few projects with local support which will probably help act as pilot projects for the larger collaborative projects(s) to submitting for grants-in-aids in the near future. We would need to work on TODs, focusing on the aim of developing a few specific objectives, keeping in mind how beneficial it will be for the WHO International Clinical Trial Registry Platform. We may eventually propose a broad classification of TDOs as (i) Communicable and transmissible tropical oral diseases (TODs) includes Category 1 (Highly prevalent): AIDS/HIV infection, Malaria, TB, Kala-Azar, and Category 2 (Moderately prevalent): Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis (MCL), Onchocerciasis, and Leprosy. (ii) Non-communicable diseases causing death and disability in the tropical countries. Oral Cancer, Noma (Cancrum Oris), PCM i.e. Marasmus (M), Kwashiorkor (K) including M&K and Diabetes. We do not have sufficient information on oral manifestation of WHO listed other tropical and communicable diseases which are mostly prevalent in African and Asian tropical countries, needs to be data-based. Moreover, we also need to identify the other systemic diseases of oral health concern in the tropical countries, (Proposed checklist draft protocol is available at ICTOH*).Some of those diseases is preceded with oral signs and/or coincided should be an important concern for oral health practitioners. However, I have identified the following constrains could be tackled through effective approaches for a realistic development of TODs, and that may help in a direction. Inadequate clinical data: Needs to be developed with an authentic database Inadequate training facilities for clinical diagnosis and management of TODs and conditions: A structured training programme for clinical diagnosis and management needs to be developed Lack of initiative for community education for the prevention and control: Oral health professionals of the tropical countries may need to participate, individually, and/or in a team (through an integrated approach) for the prevention and control of communicable diseases of oral health concern including TODs and general systemic diseases with oral manifestations (Preceded and/or coincided oral signs) Non-existence of categorization of Tropical Disease Research (TDR) [cf. WHO TDR value for tropical disease]: A specific TDR for TODs would be a good initiative Inadequate research: Priority-based systematic lab-based and epidemiological researches need to be developed, within the existing facilities Non existence of specific course contents: The syllabus and curriculums of the undergraduate and postgraduate courses need to be incorporated with the specific modules of TODs (especially in the tropical countries)

Brain Drain and Regain: The Migration Behaviour of South African Medical Professionals (Migration Policy Series No. 65)

Since the end of apartheid, South Africa has experienced a significant outflow of health professionals. The out-migration of health professionals from the country is part of a broader global trend of health professional migration from the Global South to the Global North. In the health sector, this “brain drain” has led to a significant decline in the quality of care in affected countries. The costs of health professional migration for countries of origin are usually measured in terms of lost investment in training and the gaps in medical care left by their departure. One recent study, for example, estimated that the cost to South Africa in lost investment in training from the emigration of health physicians to Australia, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom amounts to USD1.4 billion. Previous studies have predicted that medical migration from South Africa is unlikely to subside in the short and medium term as health professionals and trainees exhibit very high emigration potential. This report provides an updated (2013) picture of the state of mind of South African health professionals. It also allows an assessment of whether professional attitudes and perceptions have changed between 2007 and 2013 including (a) whether levels of satisfaction with work and life in South Africa have improved or worsened; (b) whether emigration potential has declined or intensified amongst health professionals and (c) whether the “brain drain” from South Africa is likely to continue. These questions are of particular relevance given various changes in the health sector since 2007. Return migration has been advocated internationally as an antidote to the brain drain and an important downstream benefit for countries of origin in the South. This report therefore provides important new information about the implications of health professional return migration to South Africa. Another strategy adopted by some countries is to use immigration policy as a means of dealing with health professional shortages. South Africa is a destination country for health professionals from some countries although, with the exception of official schemes to temporarily import Cuban and Tunisian doctors, this is not official policy. Significantly, the medical professions have only just appeared on the government scarceskills lists that have been published for nearly a decade. This survey provided an opportunity to profile a sub-group of non-South African doctors to assess whether they are more inclined to remain in the country than their South African counterparts. The current survey was developed in collaboration with the Institute of Population Health at the University of Ottawa as part of a CIHR-funded global project on health professional migration from India, Jamaica, the Philippines and South Africa. The questionnaire was hosted on the MEDpages website and potential respondents were invited by email to complete the survey. A total of 1,383 completed questionnaires were received from physicians, dentists and pharmacists – a response rate of 7%

No. 65: Brain Drain and Regain: The Migration Behaviour of South African Medical Professionals

Since the end of apartheid, South Africa has experienced a significant outflow of health professionals. The out-migration of health professionals from the country is part of a broader global trend of health professional migration from the Global South to the Global North. In the health sector, this “brain drain” has led to a significant decline in the quality of care in affected countries. The costs of health professional migration for countries of origin are usually measured in terms of lost investment in training and the gaps in medical care left by their departure. One recent study, for example, estimated that the cost to South Africa in lost investment in training from the emigration of health physicians to Australia, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom amounts to USD1.4 billion. Previous studies have predicted that medical migration from South Africa is unlikely to subside in the short and medium term as health professionals and trainees exhibit very high emigration potential. This report provides an updated (2013) picture of the state of mind of South African health professionals. It also allows an assessment of whether professional attitudes and perceptions have changed between 2007 and 2013 including (a) whether levels of satisfaction with work and life in South Africa have improved or worsened; (b) whether emigration potential has declined or intensified amongst health professionals and (c) whether the “brain drain” from South Africa is likely to continue. These questions are of particular relevance given various changes in the health sector since 2007. Return migration has been advocated internationally as an antidote to the brain drain and an important downstream benefit for countries of origin in the South. This report therefore provides important new information about the implications of health professional return migration to South Africa. Another strategy adopted by some countries is to use immigration policy as a means of dealing with health professional shortages. South Africa is a destination country for health professionals from some countries although, with the exception of official schemes to temporarily import Cuban and Tunisian doctors, this is not official policy. Significantly, the medical professions have only just appeared on the government scarceskills lists that have been published for nearly a decade. This survey provided an opportunity to profile a sub-group of non-South African doctors to assess whether they are more inclined to remain in the country than their South African counterparts. The current survey was developed in collaboration with the Institute of Population Health at the University of Ottawa as part of a CIHR-funded global project on health professional migration from India, Jamaica, the Philippines and South Africa. The questionnaire was hosted on the MEDpages website and potential respondents were invited by email to complete the survey. A total of 1,383 completed questionnaires were received from physicians, dentists and pharmacists – a response rate of 7%

Sea level variability and coastal trapped waves around southern Africa

Includes bibliographical references.The propagation characteristics of the coastal trapped waves (CTWs) around the coast of southern Africa were investigated by analyzing the observed daily mean sea level data from 16 coastal tide gauges, as well as outputs of sea level anomalies from the Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM) at a grid point closest to each tide gauge station under consideration. The observed records showed sea level variability dominated by the short time variability with a period shorter than one month. This short time variability varies from season to season with the largest CTW amplitude during austral winter. The short time variability propagates anticlockwise as coastal trapped wave around the coast of southern Africa with a propagation speed ranging from 3 to 6.5 m/s, and from 1 to 7.5 m/s, along the west and south coasts, respectively. These propagation speeds are forced by synoptic atmospheric disturbances mainly in term of wind variability. Coastal trapped waves were observed propagating equatorward in the east coast of southern Africa in the opposite direction of Agulhas current on a few occasions. It can be a result of a good resonance between a strong and persistence of weather system and the coastal trapped wave. It is believed that more precise response and good answers for some discrepancies that were found can be achieved when a longer time records from Inhambane is included in future similar study. The outputs from HYCOM showed very similar propagation characteristics to the observed data. Along the south coast, the behaviour of the CTW is well reproduced. Unfortunately the model does not reproduce very well the variability along the west coast. While it seems to underestimate the west coast response, at same time it seems to overestimate it along the south coast of southern Africa. Although the model demonstrated some CTWs travelling northwards along the east coast, such disturbances were infrequent and difficult to find in the observed data

No. 29: The New Brain Drain from Zimbabwe

All the signs point to the existence of a growing exodus of skilled Zimbabweans from the country. Although the precise dimensions and impacts of this “brain drain” have yet to be determined, the Zimbabwean government has recently sought to stem the tide with various policy measures. The education and health sectors appear to be the hardest hit although professionals in other sectors have also been leaving in numbers. The Southern African Migration Project (SAMP) has undertaken a multi-country study of the brain drain within and from the Southern African Development Community (SADC). SAMP’s primary contribution is to examine the skills base of a country and, on the basis of nationally-representative surveys, determine the future emigration potential of skilled people who remain. In other words, SAMP provides critical policy-relevant information on the likely course of the brain drain in the future and the effectiveness of policy measures that might be deployed to slow or reverse the brain drain. The Zimbabwean survey was conducted in 2001. A representative sample of 900 skilled Zimbabweans was interviewed to obtain information on personal and household economic circumstances; attitudes towards current and future economic, social and political circumstances; likelihood of emigration in the future; and attitudes towards measures designed to keep them in the country. The majority of the respondents (844) were African. Thus, the survey results are focused primarily on the emigration potential of black Zimbabweans. The white sample was too small to say anything of significance about white intentions. The respondents were drawn from a wide variety of professions and sectors and therefore represent a broad cross-section of skilled Zimbabweans. The first significant finding is that 57% of the sampled population have given a “great deal” of thought to emigrating from Zimbabwe (with another 29% having given the matter some thought). Only 13% have given it no consideration. A comparison with South Africa is germane since that country is widely believed to be undergoing a crippling brain drain. In South Africa, only 31% of the skilled population have given a great deal of thought to emigrating, with 31% having not thought about it at all. In terms of gender breakdown, more women than men have given a great deal of thought to emigrating (62% versus 54%), which is the opposite of the South African scenario. In age terms, it is Zimbabweans in the 25-35 age group who have given most thought to emigrating. Nevertheless, levels of dissatisfaction are so high that the majority in each age group have given at least some thought to leaving. As SAMP has demonstrated elsewhere, thinking about leaving and actually doing so are not the same thing. The survey therefore sought to establish the extent to which skilled Zimbabweans have made a mental commitment to leaving within a certain time frame. Respondents were therefore asked about the likelihood of their leaving within the next six months, two years, and five years. Over a quarter (27%) said it was likely or very likely that they would leave in six months. Fifty five percent were committed to emigrating within the next two years. And 67% said they were committed to emigrating within the next five years. These are sobering statistics, unmatched in any other country in the region in which SAMP has done similar research. They suggest that the pool of future emigrants in Zimbabwe remains massive. The firmest indication of migration potential, however, is whether a person has acted on their desires by applying for emigration documentation. Many emigrants do not, of course, apply until they are already overseas. However, the survey found that nearly 20% of the resident skilled population had either applied for or were in the process of applying for a work permit in another country. Another question addressed by the survey concerns the “permanence” of intended or likely emigration. This is an important issue. Are people so disillusioned that they wish to leave forever or would they return if conditions improved for them at home? The survey found that 51% expressed a strong desire to leave permanently (for longer than 2 years), compared with only 25% who have a strong wish to only leave temporarily. Again, 43% said they would prefer to stay in their most likely emigration destination for more than 5 years. This is not therefore a population that sees emigration as temporary exile. Why are so many Zimbabweans thinking seriously about leaving? The reasons for this extraordinary state of affairs can be analysed at two levels. First, it is possible to point to economic and political events over the last decade as the primary cause of emigration and high future potential. These events are too well-known to be repeated here. Instead, this survey sought to obtain the opinions of skilled Zimbabweans themselves, to statistically measure levels and forms of dissatisfaction and disillusionment and relate these to high emigration potential. The survey discovered extremely high levels of dissatisfaction with the cost of living, taxation, availability of goods, and salaries. But the dissatisfaction goes deeper than economic circumstances to include housing, medical services, education and a viable future for children. South Africans actually show similar levels of economic dissatisfaction but they are far more optimistic about the future than Zimbabweans. Asked about the future, there was deep pessimism amongst skilled Zimbabweans, with the vast majority convinced that their personal economic circumstances would only get worse. They were also convinced that social and public services would decline further. The respondents were also asked about their perceptions of political conditions in the country. Here, too, there was considerable negativity and pessimism. Ratings of government performance were extremely low. Various measures have been mooted in Zimbabwe with a view to keeping skilled people in the country, including compulsory national service and bonding. A coercive approach to the brain drain has not worked particularly well elsewhere and often have the opposite effect to that intended. The survey showed that such measures would only add to the burden of discontent and for around 70% of respondents would make absolutely no difference to their emigration intentions. Zimbabwe faces an immense challenge in stemming the exodus to other countries within Africa and oversees. The basic conclusion of this study is that coercive measures will not work and that the best way to curb the high rates of skilled labour migration lies in addressing the economic fundamentals of the country which will ultimately improve living standards. Regretably, most skilled Zimbabweans are very pessimistic that this will happen in the foreseeable future