Spatial Interaction of Agricultural Land Uses and their Impacts on Ecosystem Service Provision at the Landscape Scale

The relationship between agricultural land use and it impact on ecosystem services, including nutrient cycling and biodiversity conservation, is extremely complex. This complexity has been augmented by isolated research on the impact of agriculture land uses on the landscape's capacity to provide ecosystem services (ES) particularly in most vulnerable areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. Though a considerable number of studies emphasize the nexus between specific land use types and their impact on N-deposition across agriculture landscapes, a sufficient modeling basis for an empirical consideration of spatial interactions between different agricultural land use types at the landscape scale across rural-urbanizing areas in Sub-Saharan Africa is consistently missing. In view of this, the motivation to understand, assess and address significant roles that size, shape, spatial location, and interactivity of different land use patch types play in assessing land use interactions and their impact on ecosystem service provision and the overall landscape resilience necessitated the core of this PhD thesis. This thesis aimed at finding answers to the question of which assessment framework could be employed to understand the interaction of land use types and their impact on ecosystem services, the present thesis introduces a semi-quantitative assessment framework implemented in the GISCAME suite to provide scientific and practical answers to this question. Ahead of the framework development, a thorough review of land use planning documents from selected countries within the WASCAL project area to uncover the key relevance government places on incorporating the ES concept was undertaken. This was with the view that mentioning the concept in such legal document alone does not suggest its relevance if road maps for their implementation is not sufficiently provided, with laid down institutional provisions, roles, responsibilities, support systems and commitments. The outcome of this objective significantly influenced the subsequent objectives of this thesis. Subsequently, I employed Voronoi tessellation and midpoint displacement algorithms implemented in the Structure Generator (SG4GISCAME) to generate alternative land use mosaics to mimic the patchy agricultural landscape character of the study area. The key objective here was to present the output of this alternative landscape as a partial solution to the data scarcity issue which hinders mapping and hypothetical testing of the landscape structure and their role in landscape resilience. To achieve the objective of identifying core sets of landscape indicators to explore the significant influence of the landscape structure and pattern as an influence on landscape resilience, I employed analytical and statistical multivariate principal component and factor analysis to eliminate the landscape metric redundancy. The outcome helped to propose core set as indicators capable to be used for ecosystem services assessment and land use planning. The result revealed that only 6 landscape metrics had the capacity to explicitly define the configuration and compositional landscape character of the Vea catchment area. This result served a critical input into the development of the assessment framework. In developing a framework to assess the contribution of the landscape spatial structure to the resilience of the socio-ecological system (SES), I mapped the capacity of the landscape structure to provide regulating ecosystem services with the aid of land use maps as proxies. Analytical Hierarchical Processes and Expert stakeholder approaches were used to identify and subsequently map key regulating ES identified from the catchment area. Following, a multi-criteria analysis was employed to link stakeholder mapping and landscape metrics to provide a functional understanding of the interrelationship of both methods and how they provide integrative insights into the landscape resilience and ES trade-off concepts respectively. This assessment was undertaken using a 2012 multi-temporal RapidEye land use classification data and implemented with the aid of the cellular automaton module in GISCAME. In the absence of explicit ecological modeling and spatial data, the result of this methodology provides a comprehensively rich ES assessment approach not only for the research area, but for transferability across West Africa. The result of this assessment is to inform, across governance levels, different planning, and development scenarios with the potential to alter the landscapes structural character and thereby impede ES flow and resilience of the SES. Indirectly, the relevance of the landscape structure to land use planning was significant across the outcomes of the thesis. Further, the approach establishes potential trade-offs and synergies across the agricultural landscapes structure and thereby suggest planning and management supports to optimize agricultural production and improve ecosystem service flows in Sub-Saharan Africa. Overall, the implementation of the multi-criteria evaluation function in GISCAME demonstrated beyond question, the functional relevance of the GISCAME software tool as the only tried and tested ES integration framework implemented within the WASCAL project area

Reindeer Husbandry

This open access book focuses on climate change, Indigenous reindeer husbandry, and the underlying concept of connecting the traditional knowledge of Indigenous reindeer herders in the Arctic with the latest research findings of the world’s leading academics. The Arctic and sub-Arctic environment, climate, and biodiversity are changing in ways unprecedented in the long histories of the north, challenging traditional ways of life, well-being, and food security with legitimate concerns for the future of traditional Indigenous livelihoods. The book provides a clear and thorough overview of the potential problems caused by a warming climate on reindeer husbandry and how reindeer herders’ knowledge should be brought to action. In particular, the predicted impacts of global warming on winter climate and the resilience of the reindeer herding communities are thoroughly discussed

Reindeer Husbandry

This open access book focuses on climate change, Indigenous reindeer husbandry, and the underlying concept of connecting the traditional knowledge of Indigenous reindeer herders in the Arctic with the latest research findings of the world’s leading academics. The Arctic and sub-Arctic environment, climate, and biodiversity are changing in ways unprecedented in the long histories of the north, challenging traditional ways of life, well-being, and food security with legitimate concerns for the future of traditional Indigenous livelihoods. The book provides a clear and thorough overview of the potential problems caused by a warming climate on reindeer husbandry and how reindeer herders’ knowledge should be brought to action. In particular, the predicted impacts of global warming on winter climate and the resilience of the reindeer herding communities are thoroughly discussed

Developing a Systems and Community-based Approach for Removing Excess Fluoride from Drinking Water in Rural Northern Ghana

Excess fluoride in drinking water is a serious health risk in many parts of the world – particularly in developing countries. Unfortunately, removing excess fluoride from drinking water can be costly and, as a result, beyond the capacity of many poor communities. The health impacts of those who consume high fluoride water over several years range from mild dental fluorosis, which is cosmetic, to crippling skeletal fluorosis, which is disabling. This research addresses the problem of dental fluorosis in an area of northern Ghana with pockets of high fluoride groundwater, which is the primary source of drinking water. It investigates the viability of using laterite collected in the study area and Ghanaian bauxite, for use in low-cost, small-scale fluoride adsorption filters. It also considers whether activated alumina would be a more appropriate sorbent, though the cost would be notably higher since it must be purchased and imported. The possibility of delivering alternative, untreated low fluoride water to fluoridic areas is evaluated as well. In addition to addressing the ongoing challenge of providing clean and reliable sources of drinking water in rural northern Ghana, this research documents the distribution of dental fluorosis in the study area and estimates daily fluoride intake from drinking water and food, in order to determine whether the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended limit of 1.5 mg L-1 for fluoride in drinking water is appropriate for Ghana, which is hot year-round and where water consumption is expected to be high.The laboratory results indicate that, at the pH of the local groundwater (~7) and equal sorbent-to-solution ratios of 6.67 g L-1, activated alumina is notably better at adsorbing fluoride than bauxite or laterite, and bauxite is slightly better than laterite. Activated alumina has the advantage of a high surface area and high fluoride adsorption at pH 6-7. Bauxite is a very good sorbent per unit area but is limited by a low surface area and adsorbs fluoride best at pH <6. Laterite has higher surface area than bauxite but, due to its mineralogy, adsorbs best at pH <4.5. The field data collected in the study area identified communities with high fluoride (3.1-4.5 mg L-1) and low fluoride (<0.5 mg L-1) groundwater. Bongo granite is the source of groundwater fluoride, and concentrations decrease with distance from granitic areas. The low fluoride areas may be good locations for collecting groundwater and piping to communities with high fluoride groundwater. Survey data indicate that the WHO recommended fluoride limit of 1.5 mg L-1 is too high for Ghana, due to high water intake. But when considering that providing low fluoride water is not cost-free, the WHO recommended limit is currently acceptable for older children and adults. However children under 6-8 years need a limit <1.0 mg L-1 (ideally 0.6 mg L-1), and even lower in the first two years of life, since they are the most vulnerable to dental fluorosis. The survey results also show that only 24% of participants understand the cause of damaged teeth. Therefore, an aggressive long-term educational program is needed along with providing low fluoride water, in order to help affected communities understand the importance of drinking treated or alternative sources of low fluoride water

Institutions, Groundwater Resources and Climate Change Adaptation in Northern Ghana

Climate change and its impacts are evident both globally and locally, manifesting in every sphere of life including natural resources. The African continent is considered the most vulnerable to these impacts while Ghana was ranked the 59th most vulnerable country to climate change in the world in 2014. Studies about groundwater resources under climate change point to some already occurred impacts with more anticipated. It is noted that climate change will exacerbate water stressing situations in Ghana as groundwater resources will be negatively affected. For instance, future scenarios indicate a general reduction in groundwater recharge of 5-22 % for 2020 and 30-40% for 2050. Already, the northern part of the country where most of the population depends on groundwater is noted for fallen groundwater tables. Therefore, in order to address these impacts in Africa, the role of institutions in promoting adaptation has been identified as one of the strategies. It is realised that institutions shape the nature of the impact of climate change, influence the way communities respond to climate change and serve as the intermediaries for external support. A glean of institutions in Ghana shows a plethora of them that are directly or indirectly regulating activities relating to water resources in the face of climate change. The thesis, therefore, looks at the nature of these institutions (state/formal) and their roles in promoting groundwater adaptation to climate change. In order to understand in detail the “how” and “why” of adaptation in relation to groundwater resources and also have a multi-perspective discussion that considers the voices of all relevant groups of actors together with their interactions in promoting groundwater resources adaptation, the study adopted a qualitative approach and made the Atankwidi catchment a case study area. Using triangulation, data were drawn from both primary (community/office interactions) and secondary sources and augmented by analyses of policy documents. The results of the study revealed that at both the national and sub-national levels, there is a multiplicity of state formal institutions in the form of laws, policies and administration even though there is currently no legislation designed in Ghana that focuses specifically on climate change adaptation. Focusing on the themes of groundwater adaptation, managing groundwater demand for domestic purposes appear to be receiving greater attention while storage, discharge and recharge need improvement. Like the Inuit in the Canadian Arctic, groundwater farmers of Atankwidi based on local knowledge have identified methods of adapting to the impacts of climate change on groundwater in the form of deepening wells, changing crop types, conjunctively using both surface and groundwater water and migrating to other places. Nonetheless, this local knowledge for promoting adaptation is limited. Therefore, formal institutions can enhance the scope of this knowledge by first of all recognising and documenting this knowledge as part of adaption efforts. Additionally, these institutions should educate and update local knowledge holders about some scientific methods of groundwater adaptation. This will create a new form of knowledge which is integrated and comprehensive enough to function independently to promote adaptation. Associated with this, farmers should be guided in adopting artificial methods of groundwater recharge that are anchored on local knowledge to boost groundwater availability. Inspired by the achievements of some existing artificial groundwater recharge methods in same northern Ghana, the thesis identified that the adoption of Managed Aquifer Recharge methods such as a subsurface dam in Atankwidi is feasible. This is premised on the fact that apart from the geophysical parameters of the catchment, it is realised that the institutional environment (both formal and informal) and the existence of local materials coupled with local knowledge support the construction and management of a subsurface dam. The thesis concluded that artificial recharge will contribute to promoting adaptation since natural recharge may be negatively affected over time due to the nature of rainfall pattern caused by climate change coupled with increasing population growth and booming groundwater dry season irrigation.:1. General background 2. Review of the existing literature 3. General research design/methodology 4. Background issues of climate change in Atankwidi catchment 5. Formal institutions and groundwater adaptation to climate change 6. Assessing institutions’ performance for adaptation 7. Local knowledge for groundwater irrigation 8. Feasibility of managed aquifer recharge to augment groundwater availability 9. General conclusions and recommendations 10. References APPENDICESDer Klimawandel und seine Auswirkungen sind global und lokal sichtbar und manifestieren sich in allen Lebensbereichen, einschließlich denen der natürlichen Ressourcen. Der afrikanische Kontinent gilt als am anfälligsten für diese Auswirkungen. Ghana wurde 2014 auf Rang 59 der für den Klimawandel anfälligsten Länder geführt. Studien über Grundwasserressourcen und Klimawandel zeigen bereits eingetretene Auswirkungen und deuten auf darauf hin, dass sich der Einfluss des Klimawandels auf das Grundwasser zukünftig noch verstärken wird. Der Klimawandel wird die Wasserknappheit in Ghana verschärfen, da die Grundwasserressourcen negativ beeinflusst werden. Zukunftsszenarien zeigen beispielsweise, dass die Grundwasserneubildung im Jahr 2020 um 5-22% und bis 2050 um 30-40% zurückgehen wird. Der nördliche Teil des Landes, in dem der Großteil der Bevölkerung vom Grundwasser abhängig ist, ist bereits jetzt von fallenden Grundwasserspiegeln betroffen. Um diesen Auswirkungen in Afrika entgegenzuwirken, wurde die Rolle der Institutionen bei der Förderung der Klimawandelanpassung als eine mögliche Strategie identifiziert. Institutionen können die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels auf eine Region mitprägen, sie können beeinflussen wie Gemeinschaften auf den Klimawandel reagieren, und als Vermittler für Unterstützung von außen dienen. Eine Zusammenstellung relevanter Institutionen in Ghana, die direkte oder indirekte Aktivitäten im Zusammenhang mit Wasserressourcen und Klimawandel regulieren, zeigt deren Fülle. Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Art dieser (staatlichen) Institutionen und ihrer Rolle bei der Förderung der Klimawandelanpassung des Grundwassers. Um das „Wie“ und „Warum“ dieser Anpassung im Detail zu verstehen und eine multiperspektivische Diskussion zu ermöglichen, bei der die Stimmen aller relevanten Akteursgruppen zusammen mit ihren Interaktionen bei der Förderung der Grundwasserressourcenanpassung berücksichtigt werden, verfolgt diese Studie einen qualitativen Ansatz mit dem Atankwidi-Einzugsgebiet als Fallstudie. Mittels Triangulation wurden Daten aus primären (Gemeinebefragungen) und sekundären Quellen gesammelt und durch Analysen von Richtlinien ergänzt. Die Ergebnisse der Studie zeigen, dass es sowohl auf nationaler als auch auf subnationaler Ebene eine Vielzahl staatlicher, formaler Institutionen in Form von Gesetzen, Richtlinien und Verwaltung gibt, obwohl in Ghana derzeit keine Gesetzgebung existiert, die sich speziell mit der Klimawandelanpassung befasst. Bezogen auf die Anpassung des Grundwassermanagements, wird der Bewirtschaftung des Grundwasserbedarfs für häusliche Zwecke viel Aufmerksamkeit zuteil, während die Speicherung, Entsorgung und Anreicherung von Wasser ungenügend betrachtet werden. Wie die Inuit in der kanadischen Arktis, haben die Landwirte von Atankwidi auf Grundlage des lokalen Wissens Methoden zur Anpassung an die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels auf das Grundwasser entwickelt, beispielsweise in Form von Vertiefungen von Brunnen, Änderung der Kulturpflanzenart, gleichzeitiger Nutzung von Oberflächen- und Grundwasser oder der Umsiedlung in andere Gebiete. Trotz der Tatsache, dass ihr lokales Wissen eine Anpassung ermöglicht, ist der begrenzte Umfang dieses Wissens als eine Schwachstelle anzusehen. Formale Institutionen können den Umfang dieses lokalen Wissens nutzbar machen und erweitern, indem sie dieses Wissen über Anpassungsmaßnahmen anerkennen und dokumentieren. Darüber hinaus sollten diese Institutionen lokale Gemeinden über weitere wissenschaftliche Methoden der Grundwasseranpassung informieren. Dadurch wird zusätzliches Wissen geschaffen, das integrierbar und umfassend genug ist, um eine unabhängige Anpassung zu fördern. Zusätzlich sollten Landwirte angeleitet werden, auf lokalem Wissen basierende Methoden der künstlichen Grundwasseranreicherung anzuwenden, um die Verfügbarkeit von Grundwasserressourcen zu erhöhen. Inspiriert von den Erfolgen einiger Anlagen zur künstlichen Grundwasseranreicherung im Norden Ghanas, empfiehlt diese Doktorarbeit die Implementierung von künstlichen Grundwasseranreicherungsanalagen in Atankwidi. Diese Empfehlung stützt sich auf den günstigen geophysikalischen Gegebenheiten des Einzugsgebiets und der Tatsache, dass das (formelle und informelle) institutionelle Umfeld eine Implementierung ermöglicht. Diese Arbeit kommt zu dem Schluss, dass die Anpassung der Grundwasserressourcen im Norden Ghanas mehr Aufmerksamkeit im Bereich der künstlichen Anreicherung erfordert, da die natürliche Grundwasserneubildung aufgrund der durch den Klimawandel verursachten veränderten Niederschlagsmuster in Verbindung mit einem zunehmenden Bevölkerungswachstum und einer boomenden Trockenzeitbewässerung im Grundwasser starke Veränderungen hervorrufen wird.:1. General background 2. Review of the existing literature 3. General research design/methodology 4. Background issues of climate change in Atankwidi catchment 5. Formal institutions and groundwater adaptation to climate change 6. Assessing institutions’ performance for adaptation 7. Local knowledge for groundwater irrigation 8. Feasibility of managed aquifer recharge to augment groundwater availability 9. General conclusions and recommendations 10. References APPENDICE

Report of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission for the year 2008

ENGLISH: The Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) operates under the authority and direction of a convention originally entered into by Costa Rica and the United States. The convention, which came into force in 1950, is open to adherence by other governments whose nationals fish for tropical tunas and tuna-like species in the eastern Pacific Ocean (EPO). Under this provision Panama adhered in 1953, Ecuador in 1961, Mexico in 1964, Canada in 1968, Japan in 1970, France and Nicaragua in 1973, Vanuatu in 1990, Venezuela in 1992, El Salvador in 1997, Guatemala in 2000, Peru in 2002, Spain in 2003, the Republic of Korea in 2005, and Colombia in 2007. Canada withdrew from the IATTC in 1984. The IATTC's responsibilities are met with two programs, the Tuna-Billfish Program and the Tuna- Dolphin Program. SPANISH: La Comisión Interamericana del Atún Tropical (CIAT) funciona bajo la autoridad y dirección de una convención suscrita originalmente por Costa Rica y los Estados Unidos de América. La Convención, vigente desde 1950, está abierta a la afiliación de cualquier país cuyos ciudadanos pesquen atunes tropicales y especies afines en el Océano Pacífico oriental (OPO). Bajo esta estipulación, la República de Panamá se afilió en 1953, Ecuador en 1961, México en 1964, Canadá en 1968, Japón en 1970, Francia y Nicaragua en 1973, Vanuatu en 1990, Venezuela en 1992, El Salvador en 1997, Guatemala en 2000, Perú en 2002, España en 2003, la República de Corea en 2005, y Colombia en 2007. Canadá se retiró de la CIAT en 1984. La CIAT cumple su mandato mediante dos programas, el Programa Atún-Picudo y el Programa Atún-Delfín

Otolith derived hatch dates, growth rates, and microchemistry of Arctic cod (Boreogadus saida) support the existence of several spawning populations in Alaskan waters

Thesis (M.S.) University of Alaska Fairbanks, 2021The changing climate in the Arctic is resulting in increased air and water temperatures as well as a reduction in sea ice, affecting native species that evolved to live in the unique habitats of the Arctic Ocean. One species of significant importance to Arctic marine ecosystems is the Arctic Cod (Boreogadus saida), a keystone species that serves as vital prey for many marine mammals, seabirds, and fishes. Arctic Cod have a strong association with sea ice for spawning and for much of their early life history. In the Pacific Arctic, little is known about their early life history, especially with regards to hatch timing and locations. To address these gaps, I estimated the hatch timing and growth rates of Arctic Cod during their first year by examining incremental growth patterns in their otoliths. Specifically, I counted daily growth increments to estimate age, and used those estimates to describe the relationship between length and age. Using this relationship, length measurements of age-0 Arctic Cod were converted to estimated daily ages and subtracted from the day of capture to estimate hatch date distributions for multiple sampling regions. Results suggest that fish caught during spring in the northern Bering Sea and southern Chukchi Sea hatched near their capture location over a relatively short period that coincided with the timing of local sea ice recession. Hatch dates from summer samples over multiple sampling regions indicated a prolonged hatching event that lasted from early winter (December) through early summer (July). Summer aggregations in the northeast Chukchi Sea likely represented a mix of different hatching populations that had been transported from the south and retained in the northern regions. Within each sampling region, mean hatch dates differed between pelagic and demersal caught Arctic Cod, which supports the existence of multiple hatching populations mixing within each region during the summer. In general, hatching occurred earlier the further south they were captured for summer captured fish, whereas their growth rate declined as one moved northward, possibly due to the higher average temperatures during the larval stage in southern hatching locations. By analyzing the elemental composition of otoliths, I was able to infer environmental conditions such as salinity near the time of hatching of age-0 Arctic Cod. Regional differences in elemental concentrations at the time of hatching suggest a stronger freshwater influence in the eastern Beaufort Sea compared to the Chukchi Sea and western Beaufort Sea and support the existence of separate hatching populations. This study expands the understanding of the early life history of Arctic Cod and informs managers and policy makers to better protect critical life stages of this key species in a changing environment.US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Environmental Studies Program, Washington, DC, Agreement Numbers M17PG00007, M17AC00016 and M19AC00018General introduction -- Chapter 1: Otolith-derived hatch dates and growth rates of Arctic Cod (Boreogadus saida) support existence of several spawning populations in Alaskan waters -- Chapter two: Arctic Cod (Boreogadus saida) otolith microchemistry supports regional differences in hatching habitats off Alaska -- General conclusions -- Appendices

Reindeer Husbandry - Adaptation to the Changing Arctic, Volume 1

Reindeer Husbandry: Adaptation to the Changing Arctic, Volume 1 is the first of two books published by Springer Nature. This first book consists of ten peer-reviewed chapters with each chapter reviewed by two to six renowned international researchers and scientists. The authors express their immense gratitude to the reviewers and deeply acknowledge their unique contribution. This book addresses the critical issue faced by Indigenous peoples in the Arctic: climate change, the ways in which it affects their societies and livelihoods, environment, and economies. It is important that all available forms of knowledge – academic, traditional, Indigenous, and local – are included when addressing the adaptation and resilience of reindeer husbandry in the Circumpolar North. The two volumes provide novel insights into the Arctic Indigenous reindeer herding communities and how resilience can be built locally through the use of traditional knowledge and co-production