Managing the consistency of distributed documents

Many businesses produce documents as part of their daily activities: software engineers produce requirements specifications, design models, source code, build scripts and more; business analysts produce glossaries, use cases, organisation charts, and domain ontology models; service providers and retailers produce catalogues, customer data, purchase orders, invoices and web pages. What these examples have in common is that the content of documents is often semantically related: source code should be consistent with the design model, a domain ontology may refer to employees in an organisation chart, and invoices to customers should be consistent with stored customer data and purchase orders. As businesses grow and documents are added, it becomes difficult to manually track and check the increasingly complex relationships between documents. The problem is compounded by current trends towards distributed working, either over the Internet or over a global corporate network in large organisations. This adds complexity as related information is not only scattered over a number of documents, but the documents themselves are distributed across multiple physical locations. This thesis addresses the problem of managing the consistency of distributed and possibly heterogeneous documents. “Documents” is used here as an abstract term, and does not necessarily refer to a human readable textual representation. We use the word to stand for a file or data source holding structured information, like a database table, or some source of semi-structured information, like a file of comma-separated values or a document represented in a hypertext markup language like XML [Bray et al., 2000]. Document heterogeneity comes into play when data with similar semantics is represented in different ways: for example, a design model may store a class as a rectangle in a diagram whereas a source code file will embed it as a textual string; and an invoice may contain an invoice identifier that is composed of a customer name and date, both of which may be recorded and managed separately. Consistency management in this setting encompasses a number of steps. Firstly, checks must be executed in order to determine the consistency status of documents. Documents are inconsistent if their internal elements hold values that do not meet the properties expected in the application domain or if there are conflicts between the values of elements in multiple documents. The results of a consistency check have to be accumulated and reported back to the user. And finally, the user may choose to change the documents to bring them into a consistent state. The current generation of tools and techniques is not always sufficiently equipped to deal with this problem. Consistency checking is mostly tightly integrated or hardcoded into tools, leading to problems with extensibility with respect to new types of documents. Many tools do not support checks of distributed data, insisting instead on accumulating everything in a centralized repository. This may not always be possible, due to organisational or time constraints, and can represent excessive overhead if the only purpose of integration is to improve data consistency rather than deriving any additional benefit. This thesis investigates the theoretical background and practical support necessary to support consistency management of distributed documents. It makes a number of contributions to the state of the art, and the overall approach is validated in significant case studies that provide evidence of its practicality and usefulness

A Graphical Environment Supporting the Algebraic Specification of Abstract Data Types

Abstract Data Types (ADTs) are a powerful conceptual and practical device for building high-quality software because of the way they can describe objects whilst hiding the details of how they are represented within a computer. In order to implement ADTs correctly, it is first necessary to precisely describe their properties and behaviour, typically within a mathematical framework such as algebraic specification. These techniques are no longer merely research topics but are now tools used by software practitioners. Unfortunately, the high level of mathematical sophistication required to exploit these methods has made them unattractive to a large portion of their intended audience. This thesis investigates the use of computer graphics as a way of making the formal specification of ADTs more palatable. Computer graphics technology has recently been explored as a way of making computer programs more understandable by revealing aspects of their structure and run-time behaviour that are usually hidden in textual representations. These graphical techniques can also be used to create and edit programs. Although such visualisation techniques have been incorporated into tools supporting several phases of software development, a survey presented in this thesis of existing systems reveals that their application to supporting the formal specification of ADTs has so far been ignored. This thesis describes the development of a prototype tool (called VISAGE) for visualising and visually programming formally-specified ADTs. VISAGE uses a synchronised combination of textual and graphical views to illustrate the various facets of an ADT's structure and behaviour. The graphical views use both static and dynamic representations developed specifically for this domain. VISAGE's visual programming facility has powerful mechanisms for creating and manipulating entire structures (as well as their components) that make it at least comparable with textual methods. In recognition of the importance of examples as a way of illustrating abstract concepts, VISAGE provides a dedicated tool (called the PLAYPEN) that allows the creation of example data by the user. These data can then be transformed by the operations belonging to the ADT with the result shown by means of a dynamic, graphical display. An evaluation of VISAGE was conducted in order to detect any improvement in subjects' performance, confidence and understanding of ADT specifications. The subjects were asked to perform a set of simple specification tasks with some using VISAGE and the others using manual techniques to act as a control. An analysis of the results shows a distinct positive reaction from the VISAGE group that was completely absent in the control group thereby supporting the thesis that the algebraic specification of ADTs can be made more accessible and palatable though the use of computer graphic techniques

Using multiple representations within a viewpoint

There are many different types of information to be considered when designing an information system, and a wide variety of modelling approaches and notations (or representations) have been developed to describe these different types of information. Some types of information are better expressed by some representations than others, so it is sensible to use multiple representations to describe a real-world phenomenon. Reconciling and integrating descriptions expressed using different representations is therefore an important part of the design process. The objective of this research is to aid this reconciliation and integration within the context of information systems design. That is, to facilitate the use of multiple modelling representations for describing a phenomenon. To achieve this objective, the author has chosen an approach based upon translating descriptions of a phenomenon between different representations. This thesis provides several important contributions in the area of information system design using multiple representations. Related work in the area is reviewed, and from this review is derived a terminology based on viewpoint-oriented methods that provides a consistent framework for the discussion of multiple representations. Previous research into the use of multiple representations has focused on semantic data models. This is extended in this thesis to include diverse modelling representations such as functional dependencies and data flow modelling. The process of translating between different representations is explored in depth, and several important issues identified. Translations are defined by a collection of rules that specify the mappings between constructs of representations. An abstract notation is developed for expressing these translations, and an extended version of Amor’s (1997) View Mapping Language is defined for the purpose of building detailed rule specifications. Heuristics and enrichment are proposed as two methods of improving the quality of translations. A measure for determining the relative quality of translations is developed to show that heuristics do indeed enhance translation quality. In addition, a method is developed for using translations to highlight potential design inconsistencies by translating descriptions expressed using different representations into the same form and comparing them.UnpublishedAbiteboul, S. and Hull, R. (1987). IFO: A formal semantic database model, ACM Transactions on Database Systems 12(4): 525–565. Altmann, R., Hawke, A. and Marlin, C. (1988). An integrated programming environment based on multiple concurrent views, Australian Journal of Computing 20(2): 65–72. Amor, R. W. (1997). A Generalised Framework for the Design and Construction of Integrated Design Systems, PhD thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. URL: ftp://helios.bre.co.uk/pub/ra_phd/ Amor, R. W. (1998). Personal communication. Amor, R. W., Augenbroe, G., Hosking, J., Rombouts, W. and Grundy, J. (1995). Directions in modelling environments, Automation in Construction 4: 173–187. URL: http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/∼john-g/papers/a_in_c95.ps.gz Armstrong, W. (1974). Dependency structures of data base relationships, in J. L. Rosenfeld (ed.), IFIP Congress ’74 (Information Processing ’74), North-Holland, Stockholm, Sweden, pp. 580–583. Atzeni, P. and Torlone, R. (1993). A metamodel approach for the management of multiple models and the translation of schemes, Information Systems 18(6): 349–362. Atzeni, P. and Torlone, R. (1995). Schema translation between heterogeneous data models in a lattice framework, in R. Meersman and L. Mark (eds), Database Applications Semantics, Sixth IFIP TC-2 Working Conference on Data Semantics (DS-6), IFIP, Chapman & Hall, London, Stone Mountain, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, pp. 345–361. URL: http://www.dia.uniroma3.it/∼atzeni/psfiles/ifip.ps.gz Atzeni, P. and Torlone, R. (1996a). Management of multiple models in an extensible database design tool, in P. Apers, M. Bouzeghoub and G. Gardarin (eds), Fifth International Conference on Extending Database Technology (EDBT’96), Vol. 1057 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer-Verlag, Avignon, France, pp. 79–95. URL: http://www.dia.uniroma3.it/∼atzeni/psfiles/edbt96.ps.gz Atzeni, P. and Torlone, R. (1996c). MDM: A multiple-data-model tool for the management of heterogeneous database schemes, part I, Handout material for the TMR Seminar on Metamodeling, Paris, France. URL: http://www.dia.uniroma3.it/∼atzeni/psfiles/parigi1.ps.gz Atzeni, P. and Torlone, R. (1996b). MDM: A multiple-data-model tool for the management of heterogeneous database schemes, part II, Handout material for the TMR Seminar on Metamodeling, Paris, France. URL: http://www.dia.uniroma3.it/∼atzeni/psfiles/parigi2.ps.gz Atzeni, P. and Torlone, R. (1997). MDM: A multiple-data-model tool for the management of heterogeneous database schemes, in J. M. Peckman (ed.), SIGMOD 1997 International Conference on the Management of Data, ACM, ACM Press, Tucson, Arizona, pp. 528–531. URL: http://www.dia.uniroma3.it/∼atzeni/psfiles/sigmodPreprint.ps.gz Batini, C., Ceri, S. and Navathe, S. B. (1992). Conceptual Database Design: An Entity-Relationship Approach, Benjamin/Cummings, Redwood City, California. Batini, C., Furlani, L. and Nardelli, E. (1985). What is a good diagram? A pragmatic approach, in P. P. Chen (ed.), Fourth International Conference on the Entity-Relationship Approach, IEEE Computer Society Press/North Holland, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 312–319. Batini, C. and Lenzerini, M. 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Understanding stakeholder viewpoints in requirements definition: A framework for viewpoint development, Working Paper 37/95, Department of Information Systems, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. Darke, P. and Shanks, G. (1995b). Viewpoint development for requirements definition: Towards a conceptual framework, Sixth Australasian Conference on Information Systems (ACIS’95), Perth, Australia, pp. 277–288. Darke, P. and Shanks, G. (1996). Stakeholder viewpoints in requirements definition: A framework for understanding viewpoint development approaches, Requirements Engineering 1: 88–105. Darke, P. and Shanks, G. (1997a). Managing user viewpoints in requirements definition, Eighth Australasian Conference on Information Systems (ACIS ’97), Adelaide, Australia, pp. 495–508. Darke, P. and Shanks, G. (1997b). User viewpoint modelling: Understanding and representing user viewpoints during requirements definition, Information Systems Journal 7: 213–239. Date, C. (1990a). 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The Object-Z specification language version 1, Technical report TR 91-1, Software Verification Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Easterbrook, S. M. (1991a). Elicitation of Requirements from Multiple Perspectives, PhD thesis, Imperial College of Science Technology and Medicine, University of London, London. URL: http://www.csee.wvu.edu/∼easterbr/papers/1991/thesis.pdf Easterbrook, S. M. (1991b). Handling conflict between domain descriptions with computer supported negotiation, Knowledge Acquisition: An International Journal 3(4): 255–289. URL: ftp://ftp.cogs.susx.ac.uk/pub/reports/csrp/csrp202.ps.Z Easterbrook, S. M., Finkelstein, A. C. W., Kramer, J. and Nuseibeh, B. A. (1994). Coordinating distributed ViewPoints: The anatomy of a consistency check, Journal of Concurrent Engineering: Research and Applications 2(3). URL: ftp://ftp.cogs.susx.ac.uk/pub/reports/csrp/csrp333.ps.Z; ftp://dse.doc.ic.ac.uk/dse-papers/viewpoints/cera.ps.Z; http://www.csee.wvu.edu/∼easterbr/papers/1994/csrp333.pdf Easterbrook, S. M. and Nuseibeh, B. A. (1995). Managing inconsistencies in an evolving specification, Second IEEE International Symposium on Requirements Engineering (RE’95), York, UK, pp. 48–55. URL: ftp://ftp.cogs.susx.ac.uk/pub/reports/csrp/csrp358.ps.Z; ftp://dse.doc.ic.ac.uk/dse-papers/viewpoints/re95.ps.Z; http://www.csee.wvu.edu/∼easterbr/papers/1995/csrp358.pdf Easterbrook, S. M. and Nuseibeh, B. A. (1996). Using ViewPoints for inconsistency management, Software Engineering Journal 11(1): 31–43. URL: http://www.csee.wvu.edu/∼easterbr/papers/1996/NASA-IVV-95-002.pdf; ftp://dse.doc.ic.ac.uk/dse-papers/viewpoints/sej95.ps.gz Eastman, C., Jeng, T.-S., Assal, H., Cho, M. and Chase, S. (1995). EDM-2 Reference Manual, Center for Design and Communication, UCLA, Los Angeles, USA. Elmasri, R. and Navathe, S. B. (1994). Fundamentals of Database Systems, second edn, Benjamin/Cummings, Redwood City, California. Ernst, J. (1997). Introduction to CDIF, Technical report, Electronic Industries Association, CDIF Technical Group. URL: http://www.eigroup.org/cdif/intro.html Evergreen Software Tools (1995a). EasyCASE® Database Engineer™ User’s Guide, v4.2, Evergreen Software Tools, Inc., Redmond, Washington. Evergreen Software Tools (1995b). EasyCASE® Methodology Guide, v4.2, Evergreen Software Tools, Inc., Redmond, Washington. Evergreen Software Tools (1995c). EasyCASE® User’s Guide, v4.2, Evergreen Software Tools, Inc., Redmond, Washington. Finkelstein, A., Goedicke, M., Kramer, J. and Niskier, C. (1989). ViewPoint oriented software development: Methods and viewpoints in requirements engineering, in J. Bergstra and L. Feijs (eds), Second Meteor Workshop on Methods for Formal Specification, Vol. 490 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer-Verlag, Mierlo, The Netherlands, pp. 29–54. Finkelstein, A. and Sommerville, I. (1996). The viewpoints FAQ, Software Engineering Journal 11(1): 2–4. URL: ftp://cs.ucl.ac.uk/acwf/papers/viewfaq.ps.gz Flanagan, D. (1997). Java in a Nutshell, The Java Series, second edn, O’Reilly, Sebastopol, California. Fosnight, E. and van Roessel, J. (1985). Vector data interfacing at the EROS Data Center; RIM to ARC/INFO and related interfaces, Technical report, EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota. Gallaire, H. and Minker, J. (1978). Logic and Data Bases, Plenum, New York. Gane, C. and Sarson, T. (1979). Structured Systems Analysis: Tools and Techniques, Prentice-Hall Software Series, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Gawkowski, J. A. and Mamrak, S. (1992). Toward a universal framework for data translation, Technical report OSU-CISRC-11/92-TR31, Computer and Information Science Research Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. URL: ftp://ftp.cis.ohio-state.edu/pub/tech-report/1992/TR31.ps.gz Genesereth, M. and Fikes, R. (1992). Knowledge Interchange Format Version 3.0 Reference Manual, Computer Science Department, Stanford University, Stanford, California. Gosling, J. and McGilton, H. (1996). The Java language environment, White paper, Sun Microsystems, Inc., Palo Alto, California. URL: ftp://ftp.javasoft.com/docs/papers/langenviron-pdf.zip Greenspan, S., Mylopoulos, J. and Borgida, A. (1994). On formal requirements modeling languages: RML revisited, in B. Fadini (ed.), Sixteenth International Conference on Software Engineering, IEEE Computer Society Press, Sorrento, Italy, pp. 135–148. Groff, J. R. and Weinberg, P. N. (1994). LAN Times Guide to SQL, Osborne McGraw-Hill, Berkeley, California. Grundy, J. C. (1993). Multiple Textual and Graphical Views for Interactive Software Development Environments, PhD thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. URL: http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/∼john-g/papers/MViews_thesis.ps.gz Grundy, J. C. (1998). Personal communication. Grundy, J. C. and Hosking, J. G. (1993a). Constructing multi-view editing environments using MViews, 1993 IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages, IEEE CS Press, Bergen, Norway, pp. 220–224. URL: http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/∼john-g/papers/vl93.ps.gz Grundy, J. C. and Hosking, J. G. (1993b). The MViews framework for constructing multi-view editing environments, New Zealand Journal of Computing 4(2): 31–40. URL: http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/∼john-g/papers/nzjc93.ps.gz Grundy, J. C. and Hosking, J. G. (1994). Constructing integrated software development environments with dependency graphs, Working Paper 94/4, Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. URL: http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/∼john-g/papers/MViews.ps.gz Grundy, J. C. and Hosking, J. G. (1995). Software environment support for integrated formal program specification and development, 1995 Asia-Pacific Software Engineering Conference (APSEC’95), IEEE CS Press, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 264–273. URL: http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/∼john-g/papers/apsec95.ps.gz Grundy, J. C. and Hosking, J. G. (1996). Keeping free-edited textual and graphical views of information consistent, Working Paper 96/4, Department of Computer Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. URL: http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/∼john-g/papers/inconsistency.ps.gz Grundy, J. C. and Hosking, J. G. (1997). Constructing integrated software development environments with MViews, International Journal of Applied Software Technology 2(3/4): 133–160. Grundy, J. C., Hosking, J. G. and Mugridge, W. B. (1996). Supporting flexible consistency management via discrete change description propagation, Software — Practice and Experience 26(9): 1053–1083. URL: http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/∼john-g/papers/spe96.ps.gz Grundy, J. 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Using multiple representations within a viewpoint

There are many different types of information to be considered when designing an information system, and a wide variety of modelling approaches and notations (or representations) have been developed to describe these different types of information. Some types of information are better expressed by some representations than others, so it is sensible to use multiple representations to describe a real-world phenomenon. Reconciling and integrating descriptions expressed using different representations is therefore an important part of the design process. The objective of this research is to aid this reconciliation and integration within the context of information systems design. That is, to facilitate the use of multiple modelling representations for describing a phenomenon. To achieve this objective, the author has chosen an approach based upon translating descriptions of a phenomenon between different representations. This thesis provides several important contributions in the area of information system design using multiple representations. Related work in the area is reviewed, and from this review is derived a terminology based on viewpoint-oriented methods that provides a consistent framework for the discussion of multiple representations. Previous research into the use of multiple representations has focused on semantic data models. This is extended in this thesis to include diverse modelling representations such as functional dependencies and data flow modelling. The process of translating between different representations is explored in depth, and several important issues identified. Translations are defined by a collection of rules that specify the mappings between constructs of representations. An abstract notation is developed for expressing these translations, and an extended version of Amor’s (1997) View Mapping Language is defined for the purpose of building detailed rule specifications. Heuristics and enrichment are proposed as two methods of improving the quality of translations. A measure for determining the relative quality of translations is developed to show that heuristics do indeed enhance translation quality. In addition, a method is developed for using translations to highlight potential design inconsistencies by translating descriptions expressed using different representations into the same form and comparing them.UnpublishedAbiteboul, S. and Hull, R. (1987). IFO: A formal semantic database model, ACM Transactions on Database Systems 12(4): 525–565. Altmann, R., Hawke, A. and Marlin, C. (1988). An integrated programming environment based on multiple concurrent views, Australian Journal of Computing 20(2): 65–72. Amor, R. W. (1997). 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