The Professional Responsibility Case for Valid and Nondiscriminatory Bar Exams

Title VII protects against workplace discrimination in part through the scrutiny of employment tests whose results differ based on race, gender, or ethnicity. Such tests are said to have a disparate impact, and their use is illegal unless their validity can be established. Validity means that the test is job-related and measures what it purports to measure. Further, under Title VII, even a valid employment test with a disparate impact could be struck down if less discriminatory alternatives exist.Licensing tests, including bar exams, have been found to be outside these Title VII protections. But the nondiscrimination values that animate Title VII disparate impact analysis for employers apply just as fundamentally to attorney licensing through principles of professional responsibility and legal ethics.This Article examines the civil rights cases from the 1970s that established bar examiners’ immunity from Title VII. It then analyzes our professional duties of public protection, competence, and nondiscrimination that require valid, nondiscriminatory attorney licensing tests, suggesting that the Title VII framework be borrowed for this purpose. The Article then undertakes that scrutiny, presenting evidence of the disparate impact of bar exams and their unproven validity, and suggesting feasible, less discriminatory modifications and alternatives. In other words, core professional responsibilities require consideration and adoption of valid licensing mechanisms that can reduce any disparate impact in who we permit to enter our profession, and who we exclude

The Impact of Curriculum-Based Examinations on Learning in Canadian Secondary Schools

Externally set curriculum-based examinations at the end of high school apparently have pervasive backwash effects on middle school students, their parents, teachers and school administrators. Holding the social class background of students constant, students from Canadian provinces with examination systems were substantially (23 percent of a standard deviation) better prepared in mathematics and 18 percent of a standard deviation better prepared in science than students from provinces lacking such exams. The effect of an exam system on mathematics achievement of 13 year olds is larger in a standard deviation metric than the decline in math SAT scores between 1969 and 1980 that has been such a focus of public concern. Other natural experiments yield similar findings. When adjustments are made for ethnicity, gender and social class of SAT test takers, New York State ranks higher on the SAT than any of the other 38 states where the test is taken by large numbers of students. The mathematics and science achievement of Swedish high school seniors declined in the years following the elimination of high/medium stakes curriculum-based exams. The analysis also found that examination systems had pervasive effects on school administrators, teachers and parents. In the provinces with external exams, schools were more likely to: -- employ specialist teachers of mathematics and science -- employ teachers who had studied the subject in college, -- have high quality science laboratories -- schedule extra hours of math and science instruction -- assign more homework in math, in science and in other subjects -- have students do or watch experiments in science class and -- schedule frequent tests in math and science class. At home students watch less TV, spend more time reading for fun, and are more likely to report their parents want them to do well in math and science. In addition, parents are more likely to talk to their child about what they are learning at school

Implementing Technological Change: Effects on Student Learning Through Implementation of a Learning Management System for Enhanced Two-Way Communication between School, Students and Parents

The purpose of this project was to determine whether or not a blended learning environment that focuses mainly on incorporating core-subject standards into a current 7th grade Fundamentals of Information Technology (FIT) course can help to increase 7th grade student core-subject, academic performance. If such performance is distinguishable, the curriculum materials used to develop this project may then be used for curriculum development within the Bethel School District, 7th grade FIT program. The product or end result of this project is an online curriculum guide titled: Fundamentals of Information Technology Project: An Online Curriculum Guide for Bethel School District Middle School Technology Teachers. The curriculum guide is categorized into six teachable units and contains all original work produced from this project. The end result of the FIT Project is published online and contains: an overview of the results of the two project studies, lesson plans, instructional materials, materials for measuring student learning, materials for connecting teachers with parents and materials for connecting students with the community

An Exploratory Comparison of a Traditional and an Adaptive Instructional Approach for College Algebra

This research effort compared student learning gains and attitudinal changes through the implementation of two varying instructional approaches on the topic of functions in College Algebra. Attitudinal changes were measured based on the Attitude Towards Mathematics Inventory (ATMI). The ATMI also provided four sub-scales scores for self-confidence, value of learning, enjoyment, and motivation. Furthermore, this research explored and compared relationships between students\u27 level of mastery and their actual level of learning. This study implemented a quasi-experimental research design using a sample that consisted of 56 College Algebra students in a public, state college in Florida. The sample was enrolled in one of two College Algebra sections, in which one section followed a self-adaptive instructional approach using ALEKS (Assessment and Learning in Knowledge Space) and the other section followed a traditional approach using MyMathLab. Learning gains in each class were measured as the difference between the pre-test and post-test scores on the topic of functions in College Algebra. Attitude changes in each class were measured as the difference between the holistic scores on the ATMI, as well as each of the four sub-scale scores, which was administered once in the beginning of the semester and again after the unit of functions, approximately eight weeks into the course. Utilizing an independent t-test, results indicated that there was not a significant difference in actual learning gains for the compared instructional approaches. Additionally, independent t-test results indicated that there was not a statistical difference for attitude change holistically and on each of the four sub-scales for the compared instructional approaches. However, correlational analyses revealed a strong relationship between students\u27 level of mastery learning and their actual learning level for each class with the self-adaptive instructional approach having a stronger correlation than the non-adaptive section, as measured by an r-to-z Fisher transformation test. The results of this study indicate that the self-adaptive instructional approach using ALEKS could more accurately report students\u27 true level of learning compared to a non-adaptive instructional approach. Overall, this study found the compared instructional approaches to be equivalent in terms of learning and effect on students\u27 attitude. While not statistically different, the results of this study have implications for math educators, instructional designers, and software developers. For example, a non-adaptive instructional approach can be equivalent to a self-adaptive instructional approach in terms of learning with appropriate planning and design. Future recommendations include further case studies of self-adaptive technology in developmental and college mathematics in other modalities such as hybrid or on-line courses. Also, this study should be replicated on a larger scale with other self-adaptive math software in addition to focusing on other student populations, such as K - 12. There is much potential for intelligent tutoring to supplement different instructional approaches, but should not be viewed as a replacement for teacher-to-student interactions

Perception of Roles of General Education Teachers & Special Education Teachers in Regard to the Inclusion of Students with a Cognitive Impairment in the General Education Classroom

The field of education has grown and changed to include students with a cognitive impairment being educated in the general education classroom. In order for these students to access the general education curriculum and achieve academic success, general education teachers and special education teachers must collaborate effectively to provide for the needs of these students. Effective collaboration depends on teachers having a perception of their roles and their co-workers’ roles that is compatible with their co-workers’ perceptions. This study looks at the perceptions of both general education teachers and special education teachers in regard to students with a cognitive impairment in the general education classroom. Misconceptions and misunderstandings were identified. Clearing up these misconceptions may lead to increased collaboration and greater academic achievement of students with a cognitive impairment

Grading and Reporting Purposes and Practices in Catholic Secondary Schools and Grades\u27 Efficacy in Accurately Communicating Student Learning

Few aspects of school are as controversial as the practice of grading, for grades affect students\u27 educational opportunities. The purpose of this study was to identify the practices Catholic high-school teachers employed in determining students\u27 grades. The study investigated the extent to which academic achievement comprised the grades teachers reported, and the extent to which teachers\u27 practices are consistent with their expressed purposes for grading. The study also explored the extent to which Catholic teachers\u27 grading practices are consistent with their schools\u27 purpose for grading. Using random sampling, 486 Catholic secondary school teachers and 50 administrators from 33 high schools in California, Nevada, and Hawai\u27i were surveyed to determine the purposes for which teachers grade, the practices they employ in determining those grades, and the purposes for which their schools grade. A thematic analysis of school grading documents was completed to examine schools\u27 purposes for grading and school-wide grading policies. Results revealed that Catholic teachers\u27 employ a wide variety of grading practices in determining students\u27 grades. Teachers reported that academic achievement is the primary purpose for which they report grades. While the grades that teachers reported for their students emphasized achievement, nearly half reported that they communicate grades to report more than achievement alone and include sources of evidence that are not indicative of achievement, even those teachers who claimed to grade solely to report academic achievement. Teachers of different subject areas emphasized academic achievement variously. A majority of Catholic high schools did not have a statement of purpose for grading, and samples of schools that did publish a grading purpose revealed ambiguity about the purpose. Finally, an examination of the data revealed little variation in purpose and practice even among educators who had higher degrees in education or who had received additional training in the practice of grading. These prevalent practices diminish the reliability of grades as communications of student learning and as data to guide adjustments in instruction that can address students\u27 learning needs. Moreover, they hinder Catholic secondary schools\u27 mission of meeting the needs of its students, especially those who struggle and are socially or educationally disadvantaged

Psychometrics in Practice at RCEC

A broad range of topics is dealt with in this volume: from combining the psychometric generalizability and item response theories to the ideas for an integrated formative use of data-driven decision making, assessment for learning and diagnostic testing. A number of chapters pay attention to computerized (adaptive) and classification testing. Other chapters treat the quality of testing in a general sense, but for topics like maintaining standards or the testing of writing ability, the quality of testing is dealt with more specifically.\ud All authors are connected to RCEC as researchers. They present one of their current research topics and provide some insight into the focus of RCEC. The selection of the topics and the editing intends that the book should be of special interest to educational researchers, psychometricians and practitioners in educational assessment

Pizzuto v. State Clerk\u27s Record v. 1 Dckt. 47709

https://digitalcommons.law.uidaho.edu/idaho_supreme_court_record_briefs/9163/thumbnail.jp

PASS theory of intelligence in Greek: A review

This article reviews the research focusing on the application of the PASS (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive) neurocognitive theory of intelligence (Das, Naglieri, & Kirby, 1994) in Greek. Studies that have used the Greek version of the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997) and PREP (PASS Reading Enhancement Program) are reviewed. It is concluded that when the research is taken as a whole, with regard to the content, quality, and results of the pertinent correlational and intervention studies, the applications of PASS theory yield similar results to those deriving from other populations who differ in cultural and linguistic characteristics. Implications for future research are discussed

Transitioning To A Standards-Based Grading Model At The Middle Level: A Case Study

Report card grades have long been a part of the system of communication used in our schools to signify student achievement. Letter grades have been with us for centuries, but it was not until recently that educators began recognizing there may be a better way to communicate what a student knows and can do for parents and other schools. While standards-based grades have been common at the elementary level, middle and high schools have been slow to put them to use. This phenomenological case study was of a seventh and eighth grade school in northeast Illinois in 2013 in the third year of a transition to a standards-based report card. The research question in this study was: How did the middle level educators describe their experiences in moving from a traditional grading system to a standards-based approach to grading? Staff (n=14) were interviewed, meetings observed, and documents reviewed to provide an overview of what happened during the transition to a report card that showed what students knew and could do. Wilderness Middle School (a pseudonym) utilizes a six-page computerized report card to communicate students\u27 academic abilities. The report card has maintained an achievement grade that continues to be used for eligibility and honor roll recognition. This hybrid approach reportedly has diminished the importance conveyed by the standards. While the staff has become more intimate with the Common Core State Standards, the new report card has not translated into changes in behavior about grades by parents or students. Changing to a standards-based approach to grading is a difficult adaptive change that should not be underestimated. Without a strong purpose message, transitioning to a standards-based approach to grading may prove difficult. Having a clear message from the onset may help in the planning and execution of changing the approach to a middle school report card