The Opening Act: Vasculogenesis and the Origins of Circulation

Previous studies on cellular and molecular mechanisms that regulate vascular development identified key signaling pathways and transcription factors. These findings supported the notion that the formation of vasculature is predominantly regulated by genetic programs, which is generally accepted. However, recent progress in understanding nongenetic factors that can modify the preprogrammed genetic mechanisms added another layer of complexity to our current understanding of vascular development. Here, we briefly summarize historic viewpoints and evolutionary perspectives on vascular development. We also review the cellular and molecular mechanisms that govern the emergence of the endothelial lineage and the subsequent process of vasculogenesis during development, with an emphasis on vascular endothelial growth factor and angiopoietin signaling cascades. Finally, we discuss epigenetic factors such as hemodynamic forces and hypoxic responses that can modulate and override the predetermined genetic mechanisms of vascular development

Role of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored high-density lipoprotein binding protein 1 in hypertriglyceridemia and diabetes

In diabetes, the impairment of insulin secretion and insulin resistance contribute to hypertriglyceridemia, as the enzymatic activity of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) depends on insulin action. The transport of LPL to endothelial cells and its enzymatic activity are maintained by the formation of lipolytic complex depending on the multiple positive (glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored high-density lipoprotein binding protein 1 [GPIHBP1], apolipoprotein C-II [APOC2], APOA5, heparan sulfate proteoglycan [HSPG], lipase maturation factor 1 [LFM1] and sel-1 suppressor of lin-12-like [SEL1L]) and negative regulators (APOC1, APOC3, angiopoietin-like proteins [ANGPTL]3, ANGPTL4 and ANGPTL8). Among the regulators, GPIHBP1 is a crucial molecule for the translocation of LPL from parenchymal cells to the luminal surface of capillary endothelial cells, and maintenance of lipolytic activity; that is, hydrolyzation of triglyceride into free fatty acids and monoglyceride, and conversion from chylomicron to chylomicron remnant in the exogenous pathway and from very low-density lipoprotein to low-density lipoprotein in the endogenous pathway. The null mutation of GPIHBP1 causes severe hypertriglyceridemia and pancreatitis, and GPIGBP1 autoantibody syndrome also causes severe hypertriglyceridemia and recurrent episodes of acute pancreatitis. In patients with type 2 diabetes, the elevated serum triglyceride levels negatively correlate with circulating LPL levels, and positively with circulating APOC1, APOC3, ANGPTL3, ANGPTL4 and ANGPTL8 levels. In contrast, circulating GPIHBP1 levels are not altered in type 2 diabetes patients with higher serum triglyceride levels, whereas they are elevated in type 2 diabetes patients with diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy. The circulating regulators of lipolytic complex might be new biomarkers for lipid and glucose metabolism, and diabetic vascular complications

Targeted Deletion of Fibrinogen Like Protein 1 Reveals a Novel Role in Energy Substrate Utilization

Fibrinogen like protein 1(Fgl1) is a secreted protein with mitogenic activity on primary hepatocytes. Fgl1 is expressed in the liver and its expression is enhanced following acute liver injury. In animals with acute liver failure, administration of recombinant Fgl1 results in decreased mortality supporting the notion that Fgl1 stimulates hepatocyte proliferation and/or protects hepatocytes from injury. However, because Fgl1 is secreted and detected in the plasma, it is possible that the role of Fgl1 extends far beyond its effect on hepatocytes. In this study, we show that Fgl1 is additionally expressed in brown adipose tissue. We find that signals elaborated following liver injury also enhance the expression of Fgl1 in brown adipose tissue suggesting that there is a cross talk between the injured liver and adipose tissues. To identify extra hepatic effects, we generated Fgl1 deficient mice. These mice exhibit a phenotype suggestive of a global metabolic defect: Fgl1 null mice are heavier than wild type mates, have abnormal plasma lipid profiles, fasting hyperglycemia with enhanced gluconeogenesis and exhibit differences in white and brown adipose tissue morphology when compared to wild types. Because Fgl1 shares structural similarity to Angiopoietin like factors 2, 3, 4 and 6 which regulate lipid metabolism and energy utilization, we postulate that Fgl1 is a member of an emerging group of proteins with key roles in metabolism and liver regeneration

Intrinsic TGF-β signaling attenuates proximal tubule mitochondrial injury and inflammation in chronic kidney disease

Excessive TGF-β signaling and mitochondrial dysfunction fuel chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression. However, inhibiting TGF-β failed to impede CKD in humans. The proximal tubule (PT), the most vulnerable renal segment, is packed with giant mitochondria and injured PT is pivotal in CKD progression. How TGF-β signaling affects PT mitochondria in CKD remained unknown. Here, we combine spatial transcriptomics and bulk RNAseq with biochemical analyses to depict the role of TGF-β signaling on PT mitochondrial homeostasis and tubulo-interstitial interactions in CKD. Male mice carrying specific deletion of Tgfbr2 in the PT have increased mitochondrial injury and exacerbated Th1 immune response in the aristolochic acid model of CKD, partly, through impaired complex I expression and mitochondrial quality control associated with a metabolic rewiring toward aerobic glycolysis in the PT cells. Injured S3T2 PT cells are identified as the main mediators of the maladaptive macrophage/dendritic cell activation in the absence of Tgfbr2. snRNAseq database analyses confirm decreased TGF-β receptors and a metabolic deregulation in the PT of CKD patients. This study describes the role of TGF-β signaling in PT mitochondrial homeostasis and inflammation in CKD, suggesting potential therapeutic targets that might be used to mitigate CKD progression

Angiogenesis in Adipose Tissue: How can Moderate Caloric Restriction Affects Obesity-Related Endothelial Dysfunction?

The plasticity of adipose tissue (AT) is related to its angiogenic ability. Angiogenesis is a multistep process which involves endothelial cell (EC) proliferation, migration, invasion and finally tube formation. AT as a secretory organ produces adipokines, which contributes to the development of subclinical inflammation. The inflammation-related adipokines deteriorate EC function and in consequence change the production of endothelial mediators responsible for vascular homeostasis and angiogenesis, leading to cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in obese patients. Additionally, the recent observation suggests that AT is poorly oxygenated in obesity. Hypoxia limits the healthy expansion of AT and stimulates a molecular response, enhancing nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-kB) and hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1) expression. HIF-1α induction does not start a normal angiogenic process but rather induces inflammatory response and fibrosis that is strongly associated with insulin resistance (IR). It is believed that EC dysfunction in obesity can be reduced by caloric restriction (CR). Moderate CR reflects a real-life situation and could be optimal to achieve an EC improvement. It reduces adiposity leading to pro-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory and—to a lesser extent—anti-oxidative cellular effects, which not only preserves the healthy EC phenotype but also leads to an improvement of AT remodeling and prevent systemic IR

Targeting the Tumor Microenvironment: Focus on Angiogenesis

Tumorigenesis is a complex multistep process involving not only genetic and epigenetic changes in the tumor cell but also selective supportive conditions of the deregulated tumor microenvironment. One key compartment of the microenvironment is the vascular niche. The role of angiogenesis in solid tumors but also in hematologic malignancies is now well established. Research on angiogenesis in general, and vascular endothelial growth factor in particular, is a major focus in biomedicine and has led to the clinical approval of several antiangiogenic agents including thalidomide, bevacizumab, sorafenib, sunitinib, pazopanib, temesirolimus, and everolimus. Indeed, antiangiogenic agents have significantly changed treatment strategies in solid tumors (colorectal cancer, renal cell carcinoma, and breast cancer) and multiple myeloma. Here we illustrate important aspects in the interrelationship between tumor cells and the microenvironment leading to tumor progression, with focus on angiogenesis, and summarize derived targeted therapies

Régulation de la fonction vasculaire pendant le vieillissement : rôles de l’environnement post-natal et du gène suppresseur de tumeurs p53

La dysfonction endothéliale vasculaire constitue un marqueur précoce des maladies cardiovasculaires car l’endothélium est l’une des premières cibles des facteurs de risque cardiovasculaire. La présence d'un stress chronique engendré par les facteurs de risque cardiovasculaire sollicite les mécanismes de défense endogènes, tels que les enzymes antioxydantes, qui servent au maintien de la fonction endothéliale. L’environnement vasculaire auquel l’endothélium est exposé a un effet direct sur son fonctionnement à long terme. Certaines habitudes de vie sont ainsi associées à une bonne santé cardiovasculaire. Par exemple, la diète méditerranéenne et/ou la pratique régulière de l’exercice physique aident à maintenir une fonction endothéliale adéquate et à réduire l’incidence des maladies cardiovasculaires. D'autre part, certains gènes clés, comme le gène suppresseur de tumeurs p53, régulent plusieurs voies métaboliques importantes pour préserver l’intégrité des cellules endothéliales. Nous posons l’hypothèse que l’environnement vasculaire post-natal influence la mise en place de mécanismes de défenses endogènes tels que les enzymes antioxydantes afin de faire face à des stress plus tard dans la vie. Notre objectif global était d’évaluer les impacts d’interventions post-natales bénéfiques et d’une diminution endogène du gène suppresseur de tumeurs p53, sur la fonction endothéliale vasculaire et sur sa capacité à faire face à un stress métabolique. Dans une première étude, nous avons soumis des souris saines C57Bl/6 dès leur sevrage et jusqu’à l’âge de 9 mois, à un programme d’exercice physique volontaire (course dans une roue) ou à un antioxydant (catéchine), comparé à un groupe de souris sédentaires et sans antioxydant. Puis les interventions ont été stoppées et une diète riche en gras a été introduite, ou non, pour une période de 3 mois; les souris ont été sacrifiées à l'âge de 9 ou 12 mois. Nous avons observé que l’exercice a protégé les cellules endothéliales des effets délétères induits par la diète riche en gras en préservant la fonction endothéliale par le maintien d’un profil rédox sain et en évitant la hausse de l’inflammation. La catéchine a maintenu la fonction endothéliale aortique, mais n’a pas prévenu le profil inflammatoire en présence de la diète riche en gras. Finalement, chez les souris sédentaires, la fonction endothéliale a été détériorée en présence de la diète riche en gras, sans indice d’inflammation vasculaire. Dans une seconde étude, des souris partiellement déficientes en p53 (p53+/-) et contrôles C57Bl/6 ont été exposées à la même diète riche en gras à partir de 3 mois et ce jusqu’à l’âge de 6 mois. Notre raisonnement était basé sur la démonstration que p53 est un régulateur de l’expression des enzymes antioxydantes in vitro. Chez les souris p53+/-, les cellules endothéliales ont été protégées du stress induit par l’hypercholestérolémie engendrée par la diète riche en gras. Cependant, chez les souris p53+/- cette protection pourrait être secondaire à un métabolisme accru des acides biliaires, qui en prévenant la hausse de cholestérol, protègerait indirectement l'endothélium. Nous avons donc pu démontrer l’importance de l’environnement vasculaire sur la fonction endothéliale. La diète riche en gras a stimulé certains mécanismes de défense vasculaires tels que la voie des EDHF et la superoxyde dismutase afin de maintenir la fonction endothéliale malgré les conditions pro-athérosclérotiques. Nous avons observé que l’exercice et la catéchine influencent différemment l’endothélium malgré leurs capacités antioxydantes. Ces études soulignent la sensibilité de l’endothélium aux changements dans l’environnement vasculaire. En accord avec le vieillissement de la population et la progression des maladies cardiovasculaires, la proportion de personnes ayant une dysfonction endothéliale augmente. Ainsi, une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes ou d’interventions qui permettent le maintien de la fonction endothéliale à long terme s’avère utile.Endothelial dysfunction is an early marker of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases. Cardiovascular risk factors generate a chronic stress, challenging endogenous defense mechanisms that are critical to maintain endothelial function, such as antioxidant enzymes. The vascular environment impacts the integrity and long-term function of endothelial cells. Thus, a healthy lifestyle is beneficial for cardiovascular health: regular physical training and/or a Mediterranean diet are associated with the maintenance of endothelial function and a lower incidence of cardiovascular diseases. On the other hand, some key genes such as tumor suppressor gene p53, are known to regulate numerous cellular functions that are necessary to maintain endothelial cells integrity. We hypothesized that the post-natal vascular environment impacts the development of endogenous cellular defense mechanisms such as antioxidant enzymes, in order to protect against vascular stress that will occur later in life. Our major goal was to evaluate the impact of post-natal interventions and endogenous reduction of p53 expression on vascular endothelial function and its capacity to resist against a metabolic stress. In our first study, healthy C57Bl/6 mice were exposed from weaning to the age of 9 months to physical voluntary training (running wheel) or to the antioxidant catechin, and were compared to physically inactive mice that did not receive catechin. Then, exercise and catechin were stopped and mice were subjected to a regular or a high fat diet for 3 months; mice were sacrificed either at the age of 9 or 12 months. In trained mice, we observed that exercise prevented endothelial dysfunction and inflammation induced by the high fat diet. In catechin-treated mice, aortic endothelial function was maintained despite exposure to the high fat diet, but an inflammatory profile was observed. In physically inactive mice, the high fat diet induced endothelial dysfunction without inflammation. In our second study, mice partially deficient in p53 (p53+/-) were exposed to the same high fat diet from 3 to 6 months of age. Our rationale was based on the discovery that in vitro, p53 regulates antioxidant enzymes gene expression. In p53+/- mice, endothelial cells were protected from the stress of hypercholesterolemia induced by the high fat diet. However, this endothelial protection could be linked with an unexpected enhanced bile acid metabolism in p53+/- mice: low endogenous expression of p53 prevents the rise in plasma total cholesterol when fed a high fat diet, indirectly protecting the endothelium. In summary, we were able to demonstrate the importance of the vascular environment on endothelial function. The pro-atherosclerotic environment induced by the high fat diet stimulated vascular defense mechanisms, as observed by the activation of the compensatory EDHF pathway and superoxide dismutase activity, to maintain an adequate endothelial function. We observed that exercise and catechin had a different impact on the endothelium despite their antioxidant properties. These studies demonstrate the sensitivity of the endothelium to changes within the vascular environment. As the population is aging and the incidence of cardiovascular diseases is increasing, endothelial dysfunction will be more frequent. Therefore, a better comprehension of mechanisms or interventions that can protect endothelial function can only be beneficial