REAL TIME MONITORING OF VOLUMETRIC WATER CONTENT IN RECLAIMED MINE WASTE USING CONE PENETRATION - TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETRY

Reclamation soil covers over mine waste are designed to store water as a means of controlling water balance in order to support re-vegetation and minimize the net percolation of water into mine waste. Measurement of stored volumes of water in reclamation material is a critical element in monitoring the performance of the soil cover. The purpose of this project is to undertake laboratory and field trials of a sensor to measure volumetric water content profiles through reclaimed mine waste using a new time domain reflectometry (TDR) component added to conventional geotechnical cone penetration testing (CPT). Time domain reflectometry measures the volumetric water content of a soil by characterizing the dielectric constant of the soil – a property that is strongly dependant on volumetric water content. The sensor design is constrained by the ability to be adapted to standard CPT equipment as well as being operational in soils with elevated electrically conductivity (EC). The engineering problem addressed in this project is the measurement of detailed profiles of stored water volume over large areas of reclaimed mine waste (i.e. soil covers placed over tailings or overburden) in real time. If successful, this will be a new method to obtain real time, spatial distributions of stored water volume to depths of up to 10 m within reclaimed mine closure landscapes. Other methods exist to obtain stored water volume profiles however these methods are rather complicated. The laboratory component of this project was intended to measure the accuracy and operational range of the device using prepared samples under a controlled setting. Two field based calibration studies were used to assess the robustness of the device under extreme forces and to evaluate its performance under actual field conditions. It is expected that the developed CPT-TDR probe can be utilized by industry to evaluate the performance of reclamation covers in a wide variety of closure designs

Development of a time domain reflectometry sensor for cone penetration testing

An essential component for evaluating the performance of a mine site after its closure includes the tracking of water movement through mine waste such as tailings and overburden. A critical element of this evaluation is the measurement of the volume of water stored in the closure landform. The objective of this project was to design a time domain reflectometry (TDR) device that could be used to measure the volumetric water content of a soil profile to depths of 10 to 20 m. Upon completion of this project, the device will be integrated onto ConeTec’s cone penetration testing (CPT) shaft for initially monitoring Syncrude Canada Limited’s northeastern Alberta oil sands mine site. The objective of this project will be achieved through at least two phases of research and development; this thesis concentrates on the first phase. In this phase, research focused on prototype development through laboratory testing to determine appropriate TDR probe geometries and configurations that could be integrated onto a CPT shaft. Considerations also had to be made for protecting the integrity of the probe during field use and mitigating the effects of highly electrically conductive soils common in reclaimed mine sites. A number of different prototype designs were initially investigated in this research, leading to the development of a refined prototype for advanced testing. Testing for the project was carried out first in solutions of known dielectric constants and salinities, and then proceeded to soils with a range of known water contents and salinities. Good quality electrical connections were found to be crucial for generating waveforms that were easy to interpret; bad connections resulted in poor results in a number of cases. Decreased probe sensitivity was observed in response to increased rod embedment within the probe variants. A far greater decrease in sensitivity was seen in the results of the fully sheathed rods, although the sheathing was effective for extending the range of the probe in electrically conductive testing conditions. Despite poor results that were seen in some of the tests, overall the results were promising. In particular, results from the push-test showed that the probe was able to monitor changes in water content with depth

Une plate-forme sans fil pour electrochimique spectroscopie d'impédance

Avec l’émergence soutenue de capteurs et de dispositifs électrochimiques innovants, la spectroscopie d'impédance électrochimique est devenue l'un des outils les plus importants pour la caractérisation et la modélisation de la matière ionique et de l'interfaçage des capteurs. La capacité de détecter automatiquement, à l’aide de dispositifs électrochimiques peu couteux, les caractéristiques physiques et chimiques de la matière ionique ouvre une gamme d’application très variée pour la compréhension et l’optimisation des procédés ou interviennent les processus électrochimiques. Cette thèse décrit le développement d’une plate-forme microélectronique miniaturisée, connectée, multiplexée, et à faible coût pour la spectroscopie d'impédance diélectrique (SID) conçue pour les mesures électrochimiques in-situ et adaptée aux architectures de réseau sans fil. La plate-forme développée durant ce travail de maitrise a été testée et validée au sein d’une maille ZigBee et a été en mesure d'interfacer jusqu'à trois capteurs SID en même temps et de relayer l'information à travers le net Zigbee pour l'analyse de données et le stockage. Le système a été construit à partir de composants microélectroniques disponibles commercialement et bénéficie des avantages d'une calibration système on-the-fly qui effectue la calibration du capteur de manière aisée. Dans ce mémoire de maitrise, nous rapportons la modélisation et la caractérisation de senseurs électrochimiques de nitrate; notamment nous décrivons la conception microélectronique, la réponse d'impédance de Nyquist, la sensibilité et la précision de la mesure électrochimique, et les résultats de tests de la plate-forme pour les applications de spectroscopie d'impédance relatives à la détection du nitrate, de la détection de la qualité de l'eau, et des senseurs tactiles.The emergence of the various applications of electrochemical sensors and devices, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy became one of the most important tools for characterizing and modeling of the material and interfacing the sensors. The ability to sense in an automatic manner enables a wide variety of processes to be better understood and optimized cost-effectively. This thesis describes the development of a low-cost, miniaturized, multiplexed, and connected platform for dielectric impedance spectroscopy (DIS) designed for in-situ measurements and adapted to wireless network architectures. The platform has been tested and used as a DIS sensor node on a ZigBee mesh and was able to interface up to three DIS sensors at the same time and relay the information through the Zigbee net for data analysis and storage. The system was built from commercial microelectronics components and benefits from an on-the-fly calibration system that makes sensor calibration easy. The thesis reports characterizing and modeling of two electro-chemical devices (i.e. nitrate sensor and optically-transparent electrically-conductive glasses) and also describes the microelectronics design, the Nyquist impedance response, the measurement sensitivity and accuracy, and the testing of the platform for in-situ dielectric impedance spectroscopy applications pertaining to fertilizer sensing, water quality sensing, and touch sensing

A newly designed TDR probe for soils with high electrical conductivities

Time domain reflectometry (TDR) is a fast, accurate, and safe technology for field monitoring of soil moisture. Commonly used information in TDR signals includes the apparent dielectric constant and electrical conductivity. Because general TDR principles are not available for apparent dielectric constant measurements by travel time methods in soils with high electrical conductivities caused by the significant signal attenuation, the conventional commercial probes lose their purposes. For this reason, a new probe has been designed for measuring dielectric constants in highly conductive soils on the basis of the surface reflection coefficients method. This new probe can make the reflection at the soil surface more distinct. Experiments were conducted to verify the accuracy of measuring dielectric constants in different soils using this new probe. Finally, the probe was used to measure water content and dry density in the field. The results show that the probe has good integrity and high strength. This probe is capable of obtaining the dielectric constant in soils with high electrical conductivities using surface reflection coefficients methods with reasonable accuracy. In addition, it indicates that the dielectric constant measured by this approach matches well with that determined by travel time methods in the relative error range of 10 % in lowly conductive soils. Compared to oven-dry methods, the relative errors of water content and dry density determined using this new probe are less than 10 % and 3 %, respectively

Monitoring Stormwater Redistribution Into Low Resistivity Soils Using Noninvasive Geophysical Techniques

Water held in the unsaturated zone is important for agriculture and construction and is replenished by infiltrating rainwater. Monitoring the soil water content of clay soils using ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has not been researched, as clay soils cause attenuation of GPR signal. In this study, GPR common-midpoint soundings (CMPs) are used in the clayey soils of the Miller Run floodplain to monitor changes in the soil water content (SWC) before and after rainfall events. GPR accomplishes this task because increases in water content will increase the dielectric constant of the subsurface material, and decrease the velocity of the GPR wave. Using an empirical relationship between dielectric constant and SWC, the Topp relation, we are able to calculate a SWC from these velocity measurements. Non-invasive electromagnetics, resistivity, and seismic were performed, and from these surveys, the layering at the field site was delineated. EM characterized the horizontal variation of the soil, allowing us to target the most clay rich area. At the CMP location, resistivity indicates the vertical structure of the subsurface consists of a 40 cm thick layer with a resistivity of 100 ohm*m. Between 40 cm and 1.5 m is a layer with a resistivity of 40 ohm*m. The thickness estimates were confirmed with invasive auger and trenching methods away from the CMP location. GPR CMPs were collected relative to a July 2013 and September 2013 storm. The velocity observations from the CMPs had a precision of +/- 0.001 m/ns as assessed by repeat analysis. In the case of both storms, the GPR data showed the expected relationship between the rainstorms and calculated SWC, with the SWC increasing sharply after the rainstorm and decreasing as time passed. We compared these data to auger core samples collected at the same time as the CMPs were taken, and the volumetric analysis of the cores confirmed the trend seen in the GPR, with SWC values between 3 and 5 percent lower than the GPR estimates. Our data shows that we can, with good precision, monitor changes in the SWC of conductive soils in response to rainfall events, despite the attenuation induced by the clay

Monitoring Stormwater Redistribution Into Low Resistivity Soils Using Noninvasive Geophysical Techniques

Water held in the unsaturated zone is important for agriculture and construction and is replenished by infiltrating rainwater. Monitoring the soil water content of clay soils using ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has not been researched, as clay soils cause attenuation of GPR signal. In this study, GPR common-midpoint soundings (CMPs) are used in the clayey soils of the Miller Run floodplain to monitor changes in the soil water content (SWC) before and after rainfall events. GPR accomplishes this task because increases in water content will increase the dielectric constant of the subsurface material, and decrease the velocity of the GPR wave. Using an empirical relationship between dielectric constant and SWC, the Topp relation, we are able to calculate a SWC from these velocity measurements. Non-invasive electromagnetics, resistivity, and seismic were performed, and from these surveys, the layering at the field site was delineated. EM characterized the horizontal variation of the soil, allowing us to target the most clay rich area. At the CMP location, resistivity indicates the vertical structure of the subsurface consists of a 40 cm thick layer with a resistivity of 100 ohm*m. Between 40 cm and 1.5 m is a layer with a resistivity of 40 ohm*m. The thickness estimates were confirmed with invasive auger and trenching methods away from the CMP location. GPR CMPs were collected relative to a July 2013 and September 2013 storm. The velocity observations from the CMPs had a precision of +/- 0.001 m/ns as assessed by repeat analysis. In the case of both storms, the GPR data showed the expected relationship between the rainstorms and calculated SWC, with the SWC increasing sharply after the rainstorm and decreasing as time passed. We compared these data to auger core samples collected at the same time as the CMPs were taken, and the volumetric analysis of the cores confirmed the trend seen in the GPR, with SWC values between 3 and 5 percent lower than the GPR estimates. Our data shows that we can, with good precision, monitor changes in the SWC of conductive soils in response to rainfall events, despite the attenuation induced by the clay

Comparison of techniques for measuring the water content of soil and other porous media

The measurement of water in soil on a potential, gravimetric or volumetric basis is considered, with studies concentrating on the measurement of water by dielectric and neutron moderation methods. The ability of the time-domain reflectometry technique to measure water content simultaneously at different spatial locations is an important advantage of the technique. The reported apparent dielectric by the TRASE� time-domain reflectometer and Pyelab time-domain reflectometry systems is sensitive to change in extension cable length. In some soil, e.g. a commercial sand, the response to increasing extension length of extension cable is linear. For other soil a linear response occurs for certain lengths of cable at different moisture contents. A single model accounting for clay content, extension cable length, time-domain reflectometry system, probe type and inherent moisture conditions explained 62.2 % of variation from the control (0 m extension) cable. The extension cable causes a decrease in the returning electromagnetic-wave energy; leading to a decline in the slope used in automatic end-point determination. Calibration for each probe installation when the soil is saturated, and at small water contents is recommended. The ability of time-domain reflectometry, frequency-domain and neutron moderation techniques in measuring soil water content in a Brown Chromosol is examined. An in situ calibration, across a limited range of water contents, for the neutron moderation method is more sensitive to changing soil water content than the factory supplied 'universal' calibration. Comparison of the EnviroSCAN� frequency-domain system and the NMM count ratio indicates the frequency-domain technique is more sensitive to change in soil water conditions. The EnviroSCAN� system is well suited to continuous profile-based measurement of soil water content. Results with the time-domain reflectometry technique were disappointing, indicating the limited applicability of time-domain reflectometry in profile based soil water content measurement in heavy-textured soil, or soil with a large electrical conductivity. The method of auguring to a known depth and placement of the time-domain reflectometry probe into undisturbed soil is not recommended. A time-domain reflectometry system is adapted for in situ measurement of water in an iron ore stockpile. The laboratory calibration for water content of the processed iron ore compares favourably to a field calibration. In the field study, the 28 m extension cable used to connect the probes to the time-domain reflectometry affected the end-point determination of the time-domain reflectometry system. To account for this, 0.197 should be subtracted from the reported apparent dielectric before calculation of volumetric moisture content

Comparison of techniques for measuring the water content of soil and other porous media

The measurement of water in soil on a potential, gravimetric or volumetric basis is considered, with studies concentrating on the measurement of water by dielectric and neutron moderation methods. The ability of the time-domain reflectometry technique to measure water content simultaneously at different spatial locations is an important advantage of the technique. The reported apparent dielectric by the TRASE� time-domain reflectometer and Pyelab time-domain reflectometry systems is sensitive to change in extension cable length. In some soil, e.g. a commercial sand, the response to increasing extension length of extension cable is linear. For other soil a linear response occurs for certain lengths of cable at different moisture contents. A single model accounting for clay content, extension cable length, time-domain reflectometry system, probe type and inherent moisture conditions explained 62.2 % of variation from the control (0 m extension) cable. The extension cable causes a decrease in the returning electromagnetic-wave energy; leading to a decline in the slope used in automatic end-point determination. Calibration for each probe installation when the soil is saturated, and at small water contents is recommended. The ability of time-domain reflectometry, frequency-domain and neutron moderation techniques in measuring soil water content in a Brown Chromosol is examined. An in situ calibration, across a limited range of water contents, for the neutron moderation method is more sensitive to changing soil water content than the factory supplied 'universal' calibration. Comparison of the EnviroSCAN� frequency-domain system and the NMM count ratio indicates the frequency-domain technique is more sensitive to change in soil water conditions. The EnviroSCAN� system is well suited to continuous profile-based measurement of soil water content. Results with the time-domain reflectometry technique were disappointing, indicating the limited applicability of time-domain reflectometry in profile based soil water content measurement in heavy-textured soil, or soil with a large electrical conductivity. The method of auguring to a known depth and placement of the time-domain reflectometry probe into undisturbed soil is not recommended. A time-domain reflectometry system is adapted for in situ measurement of water in an iron ore stockpile. The laboratory calibration for water content of the processed iron ore compares favourably to a field calibration. In the field study, the 28 m extension cable used to connect the probes to the time-domain reflectometry affected the end-point determination of the time-domain reflectometry system. To account for this, 0.197 should be subtracted from the reported apparent dielectric before calculation of volumetric moisture content