A systematic literature review of historic garden management and its economic aspects

Historic gardens are important parts of humanity’s built heritage within the designed landscape, providing many environmental, economic and socio‐cultural benefits. Management is a key part of their conservation, perhaps the most difficult because it is costly, must be continual, and requires a skilled workforce. This systematic review looks at the literature addressing historic garden management, with special attention regarding the social, economic and environmental aspects of sustainability. Academic studies on this subject come from many different disciplines, making it both stimulating and fragmented. It is now time to consolidate these interdisciplinary efforts into a clear vision, including a framework of key themes and research methods so as to better coordinate efforts and make the information and innovation generated more accessible to the garden managers “in the trenches”. With this aim, reviewed studies are classified according to 10 criteria: supply or demand orientation; management phase involved; primary sustainability processes addressed; geographic criteria; number of sites covered; policy documents referred to; kind of data collected; study methods employed; possibility of bias specifically regarding historic gardens; garden use. An analysis of these criteria shows that historic garden management literature focuses on describing the gardens themselves, with few studies interested in the people supporting them. Future research should follow recent policy documents’ lead and pay more attention to community value and involvement

The modernization of an Iranian city : the case study of Kermanshah

The notion of the Islamic city evoked in comparison with European cities and their modernization process and often criticized for its Eurocentric nature, acknowledges the characteristics’ existence that are shared by traditional cities across the extensive geography, where Islam is the predominant religion. It is not unusual, therefore, to attribute these peculiarities to the shared religious framework, although said framework officially didn’t experience serious modification until twenty centuries, despite the modernization of these cities. Consequently, this study suggests an indirect approach through the study of the modernization process of cities in the Islamic world. The emphasis, thus, no longer rests on specific religious qualities and falls instead on the urban practices and the cultural frameworks in which they are inscribed, resulting from the crystallization of practices and from environmental, social and cultural equilibria in the long-term. Before 1920, Iranian cities were characterized by a set of features which were common in other traditional Islamic cities in the world. As those traditional Islamic cities have been much more studied than the twentieth century changes that have transformed them, we need more holistic and integrated understanding about the changes derived from the modernization process. To explore the broad and wide-spread of their metamorphosis, it is more enlightening if we study second order cities, rather than studying the transformations of major capitals such as Cairo, Istanbul or Tehran, where interventions are more exceptional and more rhetorical. Therefore, this research examines the Kermanshah city, to understand the link between urban and social transformations due to the modernization process. Tracing city, historically, from its traditional form, as prototypical of the so-called Islamic city, to the Pahlavi dynasty (1925-1979) and after the Islamic revolution in 1979. We will focus, particularly, on studying the stages of urban transformation and changes of urban morphology as well as conflicts and differences between traditional urban features with the modern ones. In other words, we are interested in understanding how traditional morphology and structure of the city, like residential and commercial zone, are affected by symbols of development ambition in the each era, like the opening of new and wide boulevards, intensification of land use, disciplining space, embellishing the city and etc. Moreover, we want to trace how these changes influence social structure over the time.La noción de ciudad islámica evocada en comparación con las ciudades europeas y su proceso de modernización y, a menudo, criticada por su naturaleza eurocéntrica, reconoce la existencia de características que comparten las ciudades tradicionales a lo largo de la extensa geografía, donde el Islam es la religión predominante. No es inusual, por lo tanto, atribuir estas peculiaridades al marco religioso compartido, aunque dicho marco oficialmente no experimentó modificaciones serias hasta veinte siglos, a pesar de la modernización de estas ciudades. En consecuencia, este estudio sugiere un enfoque indirecto a través del estudio del proceso de modernización de las ciudades en el mundo islámico. El énfasis, por lo tanto, ya no se basa en cualidades religiosas específicas y cae en cambio en las prácticas urbanas y los marcos culturales en los que están inscritos, como resultado de la cristalización de las prácticas y de los equilibrios ambientales, sociales y culturales en el largo plazo. Antes de 1920, las ciudades iraníes se caracterizaban por un conjunto de características que eran comunes en otras ciudades islámicas tradicionales del mundo. Como esas ciudades islámicas tradicionales han sido mucho más estudiadas que los cambios del siglo XX que las han transformado, necesitamos una comprensión más integral e integrada de los cambios derivados del proceso de modernización. Para explorar la amplia y amplia difusión de su metamorfosis, es más esclarecedor si estudiamos ciudades de segundo orden, en lugar de estudiar las transformaciones de grandes capitales como El Cairo, Estambul o Teherán, donde las intervenciones son más excepcionales y más retóricas. Por lo tanto, esta investigación examina la ciudad de Kermanshah, para entender el vínculo entre las transformaciones urbanas y sociales debido al proceso de modernización. Trazando la ciudad, históricamente, desde su forma tradicional, como prototipo de la llamada ciudad islámica, hasta la dinastía Pahlavi (1925-1979) y después de la revolución islámica en 1979. Nos enfocaremos, particularmente, en estudiar las etapas de la transformación urbana y los cambios de la morfología urbana, así como los conflictos y diferencias entre las características urbanas tradicionales y las modernas. En otras palabras, nos interesa comprender cómo la morfología y la estructura tradicionales de la ciudad, como la zona residencial y comercial, se ven afectadas por símbolos de ambición de desarrollo en cada época, como la apertura de nuevos y amplios bulevares, la intensificación del uso de la tierra, disciplinar el espacio, embellecer la ciudad, etc. Además, queremos rastrear cómo estos cambios influyen en la estructura social a lo largo del tiempo

A People-centered Approach to Historic Gardens: The Influence of Social, Political and Economic Factors on Management and Fruition

Historic gardens are heritage properties of great environmental, cultural, social, political and economic value, yet they are also precarious because they are composed of living elements. Their survival, in fact, depends on constant care. This research project seeks to analyze the social, political and economic factors influencing the management and fruition of historic gardens to improve their conservation and ability to contribute to human wellbeing and quality of life. These themes are both missing from existing literature and relevant to current trends in historic garden conservation and fruition made even more evident by the COVID-19 pandemic. Various research methodologies are applied in pursuit of the research aim, including: qualitative interviews providing a first-hand account of the motivations and struggles of those who care for historic gardens; a systematic review of the literature to trace the development of themes and trends in the research and identify significant gaps; document content analysis to make sense of the various political entities and instruments governing historic gardens; spatial analysis to investigate the potential and actual influence of heritage lists on recreational ecosystem service demand; the zonal travel cost method to assess the actual economic value of recreational ecosystem services created by an event in a historic garden. Some of the investigations conducted as part of the dissertation use the city of Palermo (Italy) as a case study to analyze the problems affecting historic garden management and fruition. Palermo’s parks and gardens have been celebrated throughout history, and they still make up most the city’s green spaces. However, they are also recognized as being neglected and deteriorating. Palermo is also a good model for internationally relevant issues related to historic gardens, including the effect of economic and health crises on the management and fruition of green spaces, public austerity, dysfunctional bureaucracy, sustainable development and wellbeing, making the results of these investigations relevant internationally as well as locally. The results of this research provide a people-centered perspective on the management and fruition of historic gardens. By considering the social, political and economic contexts in which they exist, the research identified developments in natural and cultural heritage practice, policy and planning that have important implications for historic garden management and fruition. Recent policy has focused on issues of sustainability and wellbeing, and consequentially put more emphasis on the experiences these heritage sites provide and on the stakeholders they involve. With this perspective, public engagement initiatives organized in historic gardens play an important role in involving the community, creating meaningful experiences and creating economic value. They are human inputs that transform potential cultural ecosystem service benefits into actual benefits. These findings also have implications for the governance, planning management and fruition of other resources valued for their cultural ecosystem services. The research presented here can also be fruitfully applied to investigations of the various cultural ecosystem services provided by such areas as urban green spaces, cultural landscapes and nature reserves. These qualitative, spatial and economic assessments are necessary to ensure that public policy measures, investments, and private or non-profit management strategies are effective in meeting their objectives to contribute to human wellbeing and conserve resources for the future

Investigating the Courtyards of Traditional Houses and the Effect of Western Architecture

Abstract: The passage of time enters the determinism which makes the architects far from the traditional architecture and can be economic, social, cultural or political. However, the existence of determinism in all cases above is the result of passage of time. The art and architecture are always the subject to the certain and known principles and rules and have the stable, steady and inseparable link with the culture, behavior patterns and values of society. Therefore, the architecture styles of any era reflect the culture and art. This study, entitled as "Investigating the courtyards of traditional houses and the effect of Western architecture" investigates the effect of local culture of climates, Western culture and the social factors on the morphology of courtyards in the traditional houses of Iran

International conflict related environmental claims - A critical analysis of the UN Compensation Commission

The Gulf War of 1990–91, precipitated by Iraq’s invasion and occupation of Kuwait, resulted in massive environmental damage to neighbouring countries. After the Gulf War, the UN Security Council established the United Nations Compensation Commission (UNCC) to process claims for war reparations, including claims for environmental damage. The environmental claims were unprecedented. This thesis explores (a) whether key actors influenced the rules and environmental claims, and if so, what means they used to achieve their goals, (b) how key actors used these means to influence the rules and environmental claims and (c) the extent to which the environmental rule and claims might have been different if the UNCC had adopted more transparent, inclusive and accountable processes. The thesis argues that environmental claims and rules are as much the product of human interactions as they are of legal principles. Key actors influenced the UNCC rules and environmental claims by advocating for or against four principles. The principles they advocated or opposed were effective and expeditious justice for the victims of war, due process for Iraq, secrecy and transparency. They did so through the predominant mechanism or tool of modelling which they deployed through webs of dialogue and coercion. Key actors sometimes displaced political conflict on to procedural terrain. The thesis asserts that the UNCC was a transitional institution somewhere between a tribunal administering victor’s justice and an independent and impartial international judicial body. In my conclusions, I draw lessons about the importance of environmental monitoring and assessment studies, due process, the need for adequate claim processing time, the role of experts and precedent in the claims process and the need for transparency and accountability

The US shale revolution and the Arab Gulf States: the economic and political impact of changing energy markets

The US shale revolution is making a deep impact on the global energy markets, with the United States becoming self-sufficient in oil and gas and international flows shifting increasingly towards the Pacific region. But the Persian Gulf remains the backbone of the global oil markets, while its liquefied natural gas is of global strategic significance and a factor for energy supply diversification in Europe. Growing domestic energy security expands US policy options towards the Gulf states, whose regimes are already greatly unsettled by fears over an American pull-out. While there is as yet no sign of such a move, Europe must be prepared for greater burden-sharing with the United States, especially in relation to energy imports from the Gulf. Only in the long term and in interaction with political factors do developments in the energy markets have the potential to threaten the stability of the Arab Gulf states. In the short and medium term these countries will have to secure their own energy supplies while maintaining exports. They find themselves confronted with this challenge at a difficult juncture. Certainly, their existing socio-economic development model cannot simply be extrapolated into the future. The geopolitical imponderables in the Gulf region and the associated supply risks offer good grounds to push on with the German Energiewende (energy transition). At the same time the new energy map demands more international dialogue and closer cooperation. One starting point would be energy partnerships with the Gulf states. (Autorenreferat

Kings of Chaldea and Sons of Nobodies: Assyrian Engagement with Chaldea and the Emergence of Chaldean Power in Babylonia

From the ninth century until the last quarter of the seventh century BCE, the Assyrian Empire first extended its power over Babylonia and then engaged in a prolonged effort to retain control. The patchwork nature of Babylonian society—divided as it was between the traditional urban centers, territories controlled by five distinct Chaldean tribes, and regions inhabited by Aramaean tribes—presented opportunities and challenges for Assyria as it sought to assert its dominance. Assyrian interactions with the Chaldean tribes of Babylonia redefined the Chaldeans’ place within power relationships in southern Mesopotamia. Starting in 878, Assyria first perceived Chaldean territory as distinct from what they defined as Karduniaš, the land ruled by the king of Babylon. Shalmaneser III exploited and accentuated this division by recognizing the Chaldean leaders as kings and accepting their tribute even as he concluded a treaty with the Babylonian king, Marduk-zakir-shumi I. By decentralizing power in Babylonia, Assyria was able to assert indirect control over Babylonia. However, periods of Assyrian weakness created opportunities for several Chaldeans—drawing upon the economic and military power they could muster—to claim the title of king of Babylon with all the accompanying ideological power. These new developments prompted Assyria under the Sargonids to create counter-narratives that questioned the legitimacy of Chaldeans as kings of Babylon by presenting them as strange and inimical to the Assyrian order even as Assyrian interactions with the Chaldeans improved Assyrian familiarity with them.

TRACING THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF ACCOUNTING A WESTERN EUROPEAN AND NORTH AMERICAN LINKAGE: A PARTIAL EXAMINATION

Given the call for the development of an accounting conceptual framework, this paper rejects the need for such an undertaking. Using a historical methodology this paper traces the existence of an accounting conceptual framework that painstakingly has been established over the centuries. The paper maintains that the existing need is to fine tune the exisiting framework.A Classical Model of Accounting; measure ment and communication processes; stock-jobbing of companies' shares; 'Bubble Act'; environmental stimulus; feudal system; venture accounting; 'economic capital maintenance'; creditors' protection; Joint Stock Companies; conservatism; corporate capitalism; corporate social responsibility.