21st Century Cottage Industry - A cross-case synthesis of freelancer intermediary platforms

The purpose of this study was to identify possible archetypes of freelancer intermediary platforms. Though there is growing interest towards platforms, classification of platforms stops when it is classified as a transaction, innovation, integrated or some other platform. However, this approach doesn’t account for the variation within these categories. Given the young population's interest towards freelancing and the estimated size of the platform economy as a whole ($4300 Bn.) and the number of freelancer intermediaries (250-300), attempting to identify the subtypes of freelancer intermediary platforms was deemed a worthy endeavor. Finding these subtypes of intermediary platforms or archetypes of freelancer intermediaries has both academic and practical implications. For academics, these archetypes will contribute to the growing body of platform literature by giving it new units of analysis and by creating reasonable categorization. For people interested in utilizing a freelancer intermediary platform either as a seller or a buyer, this thesis offers solid knowledge of the intermediary platforms functions and features as well as what to expect when joining one. The research design is built on principles of embedded and flexible multiple-case study and cross-case synthesis. When describing a contemporary phenomenon, a multiple-case study produces more robust results when the weight of one case decreases. The cross-case synthesis was one of the few viable options given the study’s lack of dependent and independent variables. These variables were unavailable because no beforehand information on what the archetypes could be was available. For this reason, this study adapted analytical methods of grounded theory. The study identified four archetypes of freelancer intermediary platforms: the locals, two for the price of one, the middle child and the global juggernauts. Locals focus on physical services that are dependent on freelancers’ location. Two for the price of one are small platforms that charge only one side be it, seller or buyer. The middle child is very similar to global juggernauts in other aspects but the size and is a necessary phase in the platform’s maturation. Global juggernauts are the biggest platforms and the industry leaders that have significant network and trust management systems in place. Archetypes form a solid foundation on which future research on freelancer intermediaries can be based on

What is the Price of a Skill? Revealing the Complementary Value of Skills

The global workforce is urged to constantly reskill, as technological change favours particular new skills while making others redundant. But which skills are most marketable and have a sustainable demand? We propose a model for skill evaluation that attaches a premium to a skill based on near real-time online labour market data. The model allows us to isolate the economic return of an individual skill measured as a premium on hourly wages. We demonstrate that the value of a specific skill is strongly determined by complementarity - that is with how many other high-value skills a competency can be combined. Specifically, we show that the value of a skill is relative, as it depends on the capacities it is combined with. For most skills, their value is highest when used in combination with skills of the same type. In addition, we find that supply and demand and the membership in specific skill communities, such as finance and legal or software and development, determine the value of a skill. We illustrate that AI skills are hub skills, as they can be combined with other high-value skills to generate beneficial complementarities. The value of some of these in-demand skills has increased significantly over the last years. Furthermore, we contrast our skill premia with automation probabilities and find that some skills are very susceptible to automation despite their high economic value. The model and metrics of our work can inform digital re-skilling to reduce labour market mismatches. In cooperation with online platforms and education providers, researchers and policy makers should consider using this blueprint to provide learners with personalised skill recommendations that complement their existing capacities and fit their occupational background.Comment: 40 pages, 8 figures, 3 table

Marginalization in the Future of Work: The Role of Intersectional Identities and Platforms in the Trajectories of Online Freelancers

This dissertation examines how platforms and identity attributes such as gender, race and occupation mediate individuals’ evolving participation and outcomes in online freelancing. I approach the investigation through an intersectionality lens to build insight into the dynamics of workers’ identity attributes and how these are embedded in online freelancing platforms. The research design draws on a longitudinal panel study with 108 online freelancers, working on Upwork.com. More than 400 interview and survey responses as well as secondary platform data are incorporated in the study’s analysis. Findings illuminate that platforms reinforce and exacerbate gender, race and occupation stereotypes. Data also demonstrate that identity attributes are not mutually exclusive but instead are interrelated and mediated through the platform’s features and terms. Over time, freelancers adjust their platform efforts to navigate their evolving work arrangements and the precarity of online freelancing. Together, the findings contribute to our understanding of 1) the differential experiences of freelancers, 2) how platforms mediate intersectionality and marginalization and 3) the role of online freelancing in workers’ trajectories

Korkean osaamisen freelance-alustat: luottamusta rakentavien mekanismien vaikutus huippuosaavien ohjelmistoalan freelancereiden houkuttelemisessa

Freelance economy is growing and platforms intermediating freelance workforce are increasingly utilized in organizations. The market is booming especially in high-skilled services, such as in software development and design, which enable talented freelance software professionals to charge higher prices than they would earn in traditional employment. Therefore, increasing number of highly skilled individuals work as freelancers either independently or through different platforms. Moreover, freelancing provides e.g. better work/life balance, flexibility and autonomy. Freelance platforms are approached due to their ability to provide enhanced matchmaking and build trust between freelancers and companies which is in general, difficult for individual freelancers to do on their own. However, current research has mainly focused on low-skilled freelancing and large online labor platforms that intermediate relatively cheap remotely performed high-skilled freelance work. Additionally, the crucial role of trust building on freelance platforms is lacking comprehensive academic research. This thesis approaches the identified research gap by focusing on providing better understanding of current trends in high-skilled freelance markets and the strategical significance of trust building mechanisms and factors on high-skilled freelance platforms focusing on the top talent. The literature review of this study explores recent research and business literature about freelance economy, high- skilled freelance platforms and trust building on them, whereas the empirical part aims to provide comprehensive overview of trust building mechanisms on high-skilled freelance platforms and factors that drive companies and top freelance software professionals to use platforms. This qualitative case study is conducted by interviewing 6 case companies and 9 high-skilled freelance software professionals. The empirical data is analyzed following the thematic analysis method introduced by Braun and Clarke (2006). The findings of this thesis indicate that platforms implementing the characteristics of tech talent agencies are most likely to attract top freelance software professionals to join the platform. Additionally, this thesis provides a precise categorization of high-skilled freelance platforms and identifies the key trust building mechanisms and factors as well as their interrelations on high-skilled freelance platforms. Finally, a process framework for trust building on high-skilled freelance platforms is presented. The framework provides a new approach for viewing trust building and understanding the interrelations between each trust building mechanisms and factors.Freelance-talous on kasvamassa ja organisaatiot hyödyntävät yhä useammin alustoja, jotka välittävät freelance-työvoimaa. Markkinat kukoistavat erityisesti korkeaa ammattitaitoa vaativissa palveluissa, kuten ohjelmistokehityksessä ja designissa, mikä on mahdollistanut korkeampien hintojen laskuttamisen freelance-työssä kuin perinteisessä työsuhteessa. Sen vuoksi, yhä useammat erittäin ammattitaitoiset yksilöt työskentelevät freelancerina joko itsenäisesti tai erilaisten alustojen kautta. Lisäksi, freelance-työ tarjoaa esimerkiksi paremman työ- ja muun elämän tasapainon, joustavuuden sekä itsenäisyyden. Freelance-alustojen puoleen käännytään, koska ne helpottavat sopivan freelancer/yritys -parin löytämistä ja rakentavat luottamusta freelancereiden ja yritysten välillä. Yleisesti ottaen, luottamuksen rakentaminen yritysten kanssa on yksittäisille freelancereille vaikeaa. Näistä asioista huolimatta, nykyiset tutkimukset ovat pääasiassa keskittyneet matalan osaamisen freelance-työhön sekä online- alustoihin, jotka välittävät suhteellisen halpaa korkean osaamisen freelance-työtä, joka tehdään etänä internetin välityksellä. Lisäksi, luottamuksen rakentamisen kriittistä roolia freelance-alustoissa ei ole tutkittu riittävän kokonaisvaltaisesti. Tämä tutkimus lähestyy tunnistettua tutkimuksellista aukkoa tarjoamalla paremman ymmärryksen nykyisistä trendeistä korkean osaamisen freelance-markkinoilla sekä luottamusta rakentavien mekanismien ja tekijöiden strategisesta merkityksestä korkean osaamisen freelance-alustoissa, jotka keskittyvät huippuosaajiin. Tutkimuksen kirjallisuuskatsaus tarkastelee viimeaikaisia tutkimuksia ja bisneskirjallisuutta, jotka käsittelevät freelance-taloutta, korkean osaamisen freelance-alustoja sekä luottamuksen rakentamista niissä, kun taas empiirinen osuus pyrkii tarjoamaan kattavan yleiskuvan luottamusta rakentavista mekanismeista korkean osaamisen freelance-alustoissa sekä tekijöistä, jotka ajavat yritykset ja huippuosaavat ohjelmistoalan freelancerit käyttämään alustoja. Tämä laadullinen tapaustutkimus on suoritettu haastattelemalla kuutta tapausyritystä ja yhdeksää korkeaa osaamista vaativissa tehtävissä olevaa ohjelmistoalan freelanceria. Empiirinen aineisto on analysoitu noudattamalla teema-analyysimenetelmää, jonka Braun ja Clarke (2006) ovat esitelleet. Tutkimuksen löydökset osoittavat, että todennäköisimmin huippu-freelancereita houkuttelevat alustat, jotka omaksuvat tech talent -agentuurien ominaispiirteet. Lisäksi, tämä tutkimus tarjoaa korkean osaamisen freelance-alustojen täsmällisen luokittelun sekä tunnistaa keskeisimmät luottamusta rakentavat mekanismit ja tekijät, kuten myös niiden väliset suhteet korkean osaamisen freelance- alustoissa. Lopuksi tutkimus esittelee viitekehyksen, joka kuvaa luottamuksen rakentamisen prosessia korkean osaamisen freelance-alustoissa. Viitekehys tarjoaa uuden lähestymistavan luottamuksen rakentamisen tarkasteluun sekä luottamusta rakentavien mekanismien ja tekijöiden keskinäisten suhteiden ymmärtämiseen

On why Uber has not taken over the world

© 2019, © 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. Today it is common to see news headlines decrying the wildfire spread of the ‘gig economy’. We ask the exact opposite question: why aren’t more jobs now conducted via labour-based digital platforms, the primary method used in the gig economy? Surveys in the United States, United Kingdom and elsewhere indicate that gig work remains a very minor component of the labour market, and certainly isn’t overshadowing either regular employment or the contingent workforce (e.g. on-demand, part-time, contract, seasonal). The size of the gig economy is probably exaggerated because it is conflated with casual work per se (which has indeed grown) and non-labour platforms. Our paper argues that a central reason why labour-based digital platforms produce so few jobs is because it is inspired by a purist version of neoliberal capitalism, reductio ad absurdum, including strict market individualism and anti-unionism. This renders the gig economy unsustainable on its own terms, revealing its basic internal limits. The gig economy is a potent and dangerous pro-market fantasy, yet one whose imagined perfection is unsuitable to the realities of work on a large scale, hence why it has not proliferated more widely, thriving on the fringes instead

Designing Individualized Policy and Technology Interventions to Improve Gig Work Conditions

The gig economy is characterized by short-term contract work completed by independent workers who are paid to perform "gigs", and who have control over when, whether and how they conduct work. Gig economy platforms (e.g., Uber, Lyft, Instacart) offer workers increased job opportunities, lower barriers to entry, and improved flexibility. However, growing evidence suggests that worker well-being and gig work conditions have become significant societal issues. In designing public-facing policies and technologies for improving gig work conditions, inherent tradeoffs exist between offering individual flexibility and when attempting to meet all community needs. In platform-based gig work, contractors pursue the flexibility of short-term tasks, but policymakers resist segmenting the population when designing policies to support their work. As platforms offer an ever-increasing variety of services, we argue that policymakers and platform designers must provide more targeted and personalized policies, benefits, and protections for platform-based workers, so that they can lead more successful and sustainable gig work careers. We present in this paper relevant legal and scholarly evidence from the United States to support this position, and make recommendations for future innovations in policy and technology

Kreative acts of strategy (kaos): a business plan for a new type of small consultancy

M310: Marketing Z100: Cultural Economics; Economic Sociology; Economic AnthropologyThe proposed business is designed as a small Creative Brand Consulting and Collaborative Innovation firm that caters to Small-to-Medium sized (SME) consumer goods/services producing enterprises. It derives its innovative approach from a proprietary framework, which is implemented as an analysis tool to audit a client’s business in a strategically new way. The ASP framework draws its pillars, Authenticity, Sustainability, and Product Functionality from the condensation of contemporary discourse about these topics. All of the pillar traits can be found in many of today’s successful, global brands, which encourages to manifest them as a strategically applicable tool. The overall goal is hereby to reduce so-called negative externalities, that is, to reduce environmental/societal harm and to enhance outcomes’ functional value to eventually create a more friendly but efficient co-living environment. It is believed that doing so increases a brands’ intrinsic value through claiming a socially beneficial purpose apart from the purpose to grow infinitely. Apart from offering Management Consulting services for small businesses within the respective context, the proposed plan stipulates a risk diversification through the offer of additional business services. The innovative approach focuses on a lean business structure, which entails to form a “temporary” enterprise by collaborating with contractors only when needed, that is, project based. The proposed business aims to grow slowly and organically, as it is demanded by its values and its mission to successfully shape a consumption environment that both grows and produces positive societal outcomes.O negócio proposto é designado como uma pequena consultoria criativa de marca e firma de inovação colaborativa que presta serviços a pequenas e médias empresas (PME) produtoras de bens consumíveis (englobando também, nesta categoria, bens perecíveis) e/ou serviços. As estratégias inovadoras, na qual os serviços propostos neste negócio são baseados, derivam de um framework da empresa que é implementado como uma ferramenta de análise, de modo a auditar o negócio do cliente duma nova forma estratégica, na qual foi dada a definição de ASP framework. O ASP framework cria os seus pilares, Autenticidade, Sustentabilidade, e funcionalidade do Produto, como um resultado da condensação de discursos contemporâneos referentes aos mesmos. Todas as características dos pilares podem ser encontrados em inúmeras marcas globais de sucesso, pelo que encoraja a manifestá-las como uma estratégia aplicável.Tendo por base de aplicação o meio retratado precedentemente, o objetivo é reduzir as negatividades externas, ou seja, reduzir perigos ambientais e sociais de modo a aprimorar o valor funcional (resultados) com o intuito de criar um ambiente eficiente de coabitação societal e, eventualmente, mais amigável. A sua aplicação é espectável na medida que contribui para um incremento no valor intrínseco da marca, reivindicando uma proposta de benefício social e contrariando a proposta comum de crescimento infinito. Para além de oferecer consultoria de gestão de serviços para pequenas empresas (PE), englobadas no respetivo contexto, o plano proposto estipula uma diversificação de riscos através duma oferta adicional de serviços de negócios. Esta aproximação inovadora foca-se numa estrutura de aprendizagem do negócio, que consiste na formação de uma empresa temporária, colaborando com contratantes apenas quando preciso consoante o projeto. Em suma, o negócio proposto procura um crescimento vagaroso e orgânico, tal como é exigido através dos seus valores e missão para moldar, com sucesso, um ambiente de consumismo que não só cresce mas também contribui positivamente para resultados sociais

Chasing Sustainability on the Net : International research on 69 journalistic pure players and their business models

This report outlines how online-based journalistic startups have created their economical locker in the evolving media ecology. The research introduces the ways that startups have found sustainability in the markets of ten countries. The work is based on 69 case studies from Europe, USA and Japan. The case analysis shows that business models can be divided into two groups. The storytelling-oriented business models are still prevalent in our findings. These are the online journalistic outlets that produce original content – news and stories for audiences. But the other group, service-oriented business models, seems to be growing. This group consists of sites that don’t try to monetize the journalistic content as such but rather focus on carving out new functionality. The project was able to identify several revenue sources: advertising, paying for content, affiliate marketing, donations, selling data or services, organizing events, freelancing and training or selling merchandise. Where it was hard to evidence entirely new revenue sources, it was however possible to find new ways in which revenue sources have been combined or reconfigured. The report also offers practical advice for those who are planning to start their own journalistic site

What is the price of a skill? Revealing the complementary value of skills

The global workforce is urged to constantly reskill, as technological change favours particular new skills while making others redundant. But which skills are most marketable and have a sustainable demand? We propose a model for skill evaluation that attaches a premium to a skill based on near real-time online labour market data. The model allows us to isolate the economic return of an individual skill measured as a premium on hourly wages. We demonstrate that the value of a specific skill is strongly determined by complementarity - that is with how many other high-value skills a competency can be combined. We introduce the idea of “hub skills” to the field of human capital formation, i.e., high-return skills that can be recombined with many valuable complements. Specifically, we show that the value of a skill is relative, as it depends on the capacities it is combined with. For most skills, their value is highest when used in combination with skills of the same type. In addition, we find that supply and demand and the membership in specific skill communities, such as finance and legal or software and development, determine the value of a skill. We illustrate that AI skills are hub skills, as they can be combined with other high-value skills to generate beneficial complementarities. The value of some of these in-demand skills has increased significantly over the last years. Furthermore, we contrast our skill premia with automation probabilities and find that some skills are very susceptible to automation despite their high economic value. The model and metrics of our work can inform digital re-skilling to reduce labour market mismatches. In cooperation with online platforms and education providers, researchers and policy makers should consider using this blueprint to provide learners with personalised skill recommendations that complement their existing capacities and fit their occupational background