Proceedings of the Workshop on Change of Representation and Problem Reformulation

The proceedings of the third Workshop on Change of representation and Problem Reformulation is presented. In contrast to the first two workshops, this workshop was focused on analytic or knowledge-based approaches, as opposed to statistical or empirical approaches called 'constructive induction'. The organizing committee believes that there is a potential for combining analytic and inductive approaches at a future date. However, it became apparent at the previous two workshops that the communities pursuing these different approaches are currently interested in largely non-overlapping issues. The constructive induction community has been holding its own workshops, principally in conjunction with the machine learning conference. While this workshop is more focused on analytic approaches, the organizing committee has made an effort to include more application domains. We have greatly expanded from the origins in the machine learning community. Participants in this workshop come from the full spectrum of AI application domains including planning, qualitative physics, software engineering, knowledge representation, and machine learning

A longitudinal study of the occupational aspirations and perceptions of nine to twelve year-old South African children

Despite the acknowledgement of the developmental nature of careers, little attention has been focused on identifying shaping influences during childhood. This noticeable deficiency in the literature marked the start of the current longitudinal study which was designed to provide information on the career development of nine to twelve-year old South African children. In South Africa research focusing on preadolescent career development is limited with existing research indicating the need to further explore how children’s career choice process initially develops. The study aimed to explore and describe the changes that occur, if any, over a four-year period in terms of occupational interest typology, occupational status levels, occupational gender stereotypes and occupational gender traditionality. Both developmental and career developmental theories were used to provide a context for exploring this process of preadolescent career development. It was decided that quantitative research methods would provide the necessary structure needed to conduct the research. Although semistructured interviews and biographical questionnaires were used to record the verbal data, the data obtained was transposed into nominal data for analysis. Participants responded to questions within a semi-structured interview that focused on four broad areas of questioning. These questions explored participants’ occupational aspirations, how many occupations they knew about, how much they knew about the identified occupation, and the extent to which they held gender-role stereotypes about certain occupations. After the data was iv Key words: career development, children, longitudinal research, occupational aspirations captured it was coded according to Holland's (1985) classification system of occupational interest types. The occupational aspirations expressed by the participants were also coded in terms of their status levels. The coded data was then further analysed using descriptive statistics in the form of frequency counts and percentages. Results from the study support both child and career development theory which view childhood as a time of rapid growth with critical development in various competency areas (including occupational aspirations and perceptions). Although the current study found that most children aspired to Social occupations, the popularity of this typology decreased with increasing age as more children aspired to Investigative, Artistic, and to a lesser extent, Realistic typologies at age twelve. Furthermore, it appears that children, like adults, are aware of status differentials among occupations and that this awareness subsequently influences occupational aspirations. Lastly, the findings broadly provide support for both national and international research in that it was established that an increase in age reflects a decrease in gender-stereotypical perceptions of occupations. The present study gained valuable insight into how the process of career development occurs in preadolescent children. It is clear that there exists a need for the implementation of credible and sustainable career education programs in schools across South Africa in order to encourage and facilitate career exploration during the developmental stage of childhood

A longitudinal study of the occupational aspirations and perceptions of nine to twelve year-old South African children

Despite the acknowledgement of the developmental nature of careers, little attention has been focused on identifying shaping influences during childhood. This noticeable deficiency in the literature marked the start of the current longitudinal study which was designed to provide information on the career development of nine to twelve-year old South African children. In South Africa research focusing on preadolescent career development is limited with existing research indicating the need to further explore how children’s career choice process initially develops. The study aimed to explore and describe the changes that occur, if any, over a four-year period in terms of occupational interest typology, occupational status levels, occupational gender stereotypes and occupational gender traditionality. Both developmental and career developmental theories were used to provide a context for exploring this process of preadolescent career development. It was decided that quantitative research methods would provide the necessary structure needed to conduct the research. Although semistructured interviews and biographical questionnaires were used to record the verbal data, the data obtained was transposed into nominal data for analysis. Participants responded to questions within a semi-structured interview that focused on four broad areas of questioning. These questions explored participants’ occupational aspirations, how many occupations they knew about, how much they knew about the identified occupation, and the extent to which they held gender-role stereotypes about certain occupations. After the data was iv Key words: career development, children, longitudinal research, occupational aspirations captured it was coded according to Holland's (1985) classification system of occupational interest types. The occupational aspirations expressed by the participants were also coded in terms of their status levels. The coded data was then further analysed using descriptive statistics in the form of frequency counts and percentages. Results from the study support both child and career development theory which view childhood as a time of rapid growth with critical development in various competency areas (including occupational aspirations and perceptions). Although the current study found that most children aspired to Social occupations, the popularity of this typology decreased with increasing age as more children aspired to Investigative, Artistic, and to a lesser extent, Realistic typologies at age twelve. Furthermore, it appears that children, like adults, are aware of status differentials among occupations and that this awareness subsequently influences occupational aspirations. Lastly, the findings broadly provide support for both national and international research in that it was established that an increase in age reflects a decrease in gender-stereotypical perceptions of occupations. The present study gained valuable insight into how the process of career development occurs in preadolescent children. It is clear that there exists a need for the implementation of credible and sustainable career education programs in schools across South Africa in order to encourage and facilitate career exploration during the developmental stage of childhood

Vocational Interest Development in Adolescence—Integrating Insights about Normative Change, Stability, and Influencing Factors

Vocational interests are significant predictors for various life outcomes, educational decisions, and occupational choices. They are frequently assessed in practice through the application of interest inventories and used by vocational counselors to guide career-related decisions of students and jobseekers. In research, vocational interests are seen as relatively stable dispositions that develop over multiple years. Due to their stability and their impact on people’s everyday life’s, vocational interests are often included in models of individual differences. It is assumed that they describe patterns of persons general motives that are part of their personality. Theories about vocational interests suggest that they begin to develop over the course of adolescence—stability is assumed to increase and changes in interest intensity are expected. However, more empirical evidence is needed as current studies mainly focus on the description of vocational interest development in later life phases, such as the transition from late adolescence to young adulthood. Empirical studies that capture early life phases of development, such as the time period of late childhood and early adolescence (ages 11 to 14), are scarce. In addition, relatively little is known about possible factors that might influence the development of vocational interests. It is suggested that differences in personality characteristics and external factors could lead to differences in developmental trajectories. The aim of the current dissertation was to do a comprehensive investigation of the development of vocational interests over the course of adolescence (ages 11 to 18). The development of interest stability, intensity, and gender differences was investigated. It was assumed that vocational interests increase in their stability over the course of adolescence (ages 11 to 18). Interest intensity was assumed to decrease from late childhood to early adolescence (ages 11 to 14) and to increase from middle to late adolescence (ages 15 to 18). Gender differences in vocational interests were assumed to increase from late childhood to early adolescence (ages 11 to 14) and being relatively stable afterwards. Besides these overall aims, the three studies included in the current dissertation focused on individual and contextual factors that could influence the development of vocational interests. It was assumed that personality characteristics are associated to vocational interest profile stability and that the engagement in leisure-related activities could influence the development of vocational interests. In all studies, vocational interests were measured based on Hollands (1997) RIASEC model. The first study investigated the development of vocational interests over the course of adolescence. Besides examining mean-level change, gender differences in mean levels, and re-test correlations of vocational interests, the study focused on dispositional and situational components of vocational interests. The investigation was inspired by recent theories, which assumed that vocational interests are dispositions that also consist of situation susceptible components. Data was used from a large-scale longitudinal sample (N = 3,876), where students from low and middle track schools in Germany were annually followed from fifth to eight grade (mean ages 11 to 14). The results suggest that vocational interests became more stable over the three-year period, as indicated by increases in re-test correlations for four of six interest dimensions. In addition, mean levels of vocational interests decreased descriptively from late childhood to early adolescence for all interest dimensions, except Social interests. Gender differences in mean levels were already large in terms of effect sizes around age 11 and further increased over time for all interest dimensions, except Artistic interests. Results from latent state-trait analysis suggest that vocational interests consist of both, stable and situation susceptible components. However, the proportion of the stable components increased over time. The second study investigated the profile stability of vocational interests and its relation to personality traits, cognitive abilities, and gender. It was proposed that differences in individual characteristics could lead to differences in profile stability. The study investigated the research question in four different life phases: late childhood to early adolescence (ages 11 to 14), middle adolescence (ages 14 to 15), late adolescence to young adulthood (ages 17 to 23), and a longer time period over the course of young adulthood (ages 22 to 34). Data was used from four, previously conducted, large-scale longitudinal studies. Each life phase was consequently covered by a different sample from a different study. All the samples included students that lived in Germany. The results suggest that vocational interest profiles were moderately stable during the three-year time period from late childhood to early adolescence (ages 11 to 14) and highly stable during the one-year time period during middle adolescence (ages 14 to 15), the six-year time period from late adolescence to young adulthood (ages 17 to 23), and the twelve-year time period over the course of young adulthood (ages 22 to 34). Indicators of profile stability significantly varied between persons in each of the four life phases, suggesting that profile stability differed across participants. Gender was related to differences in profile stability in all life phases, with girls and women having significantly more stable profiles compared to boys and men. Associations of profile stability to personality traits and cognitive abilities were rather small. Consistent relationships were found for verbal cognitive abilities and the personality trait Extraversion, with higher scores being related to more stable vocational interest profiles. The third study investigated the impact of engaging in unstructured out-of-school time science activities, such as reading a science book, watching a science TV show, or researching on the internet about science, on the development of various constructs, including vocational interests. In line with theories about interest development, it was assumed that the engagement in unstructured out-of-school time science activities could foster the evolvement of vocational interests, as they possess advantageous properties for the initiation of situational interest. Data was used from a large-scale longitudinal sample (N = 2,655), where students from different school tracks in Germany were followed over three time points from ninth, eleventh to twelfth grade (mean ages 15, 17, and 18). Based on an outcome-wide longitudinal design for causal inference, the impact of unstructured out-of-school time science activities on the development of vocational interests was investigated. To account for self-selection effects, numerous confounder variables, such as pretests of vocational interests, other motivational variables, and ability-related constructs, were included in the analysis. The results suggest that the engagement in unstructured out-of-school time science activities had a robust influence on Investigative vocational interests, but not on the remaining interest dimensions. The findings on interest stability, intensity, and gender differences over the course of adolescence (ages 11 to 18) were integrated from the three empirical studies. The findings suggest that stability of vocational interests increased over the course of adolescence. Interest intensity decreased from late childhood to early adolescence and increased from middle to late adolescence, as shown by changes in mean levels. Gender differences increased over the course of late childhood and early adolescence, as indicated by increasing mean levels between girls and boys. Deviations from the proposed general trends in interest stability, intensity, and gender differentiation are described in the general discussion. Findings of the three empirical studies are summarized and discussed regarding their implications for vocational interest development. It is proposed that experiencing activities can initiate the development of vocational interests over the course of adolescence. Practical implications, limitations, and an outlook for future research are provided at the end of the general discussion section

Impact of group intervention on problem-solving and self-efficacy in career decision-making

This study was conducted to evaluate empirically the impact of career treatment group interventions on problem-solving ability and self-efficacy in career decisionmaking skills. It further assessed for the impact of problem-solving training as an additional component to the standard career group treatment, relative to the standard career group treatment and a control group. Seventy-six undergraduate students attending a mid-size public university in the west who were seeking career counseling were randomly assigned to one of three group conditions: the “Standard Plus group” received standard group career counseling plus problem-solving training, the “Standard group” received standard career group counseling only, and the Control group received facilitator contact only. Data was collected before treatment, immediately following treatment, and after two weeks. The results indicated that participation in career group counseling resulted in positive changes in career decision-making self-efficacy. Participants in the Standard Plus group exhibited the highest levels of self-efficacy in career decision-making and problem-solving, followed by the Standard group, with no discernible changes in the Control group. While no significant differences were observed between the groups in problem-solving ability, a significant improvement in problemsolving ability was observed for the Standard Plus Group post-treatment. Participants rated both treatment groups high in levels of satisfaction and helpfulness, with the Standard Plus group being the highest, followed by the Standard group. As expected, the Control group reported the lowest levels of helpfulness and satisfaction. Limitations of this study and implications for future research are also discussed.Ph.D., Clinical Psychology -- Drexel University, 200

A Qualitative Understanding of Occupational Engagement in College Students

The purpose of the current study is to examine the transition experiences of college students nearing graduation through the lens of occupational engagement. The construct of occupational engagement is defined as "...taking part in behaviors that contribute to the decision-maker's fund of information and experience of the larger world, not just the world as processed when a career decision is imminent" (Krieshok, Black, & McKay, 2009, p. 284). The Occupational Engagement Scale - Student, OES-S (Cox, 2008) was administered to 205 college seniors at a large Midwestern university. The OES-S is a 14-item questionnaire on a five-point Likert scale that has been empirically demonstrated to support the argument that the construct of occupational engagement is important to the success of college students. Ten students scoring in the upper 10% on the OES-S (five males and five females) and ten students scoring in the lower 10% on the OES-S (five males and five females) were contacted via email and asked for their participation in a 30-minute, in-person interview. Interviews were conducted on-campus, during the daytime hours, and at the convenience of each interviewee. Upon interviewee consent, each interview was audio-recorded. Audiotapes were transcribed and coded for themes. Due to the exploratory nature of the current study, existing literature did not serve as a basis for theme development. Therefore, a grounded theory approach was utilized, with themes emerging during the process of data analysis. Results are presented via eighteen sub-themes and categories falling under four meta-themes: 1) On (and Around) the Fence; 2) Internal Processes; 3) External Factors; and 4) Taking Action. It was ultimately concluded that the construct of occupational engagement as it has been operationally defined plays a critical role in the experience of transitioning from college for these 20 individuals nearing graduation. Limitations of the current study are discussed, and directions for future research are provided

Common sense philosophy and politics in America: John Witherspoon, James McCosh, and William James

This dissertation examines the political significance of the two leading strains of common sense thought in the history of American philosophy—Scottish Common Sense and Pragmatism—as suggested in the writings of John Witherspoon and James McCosh in the Scottish Common Sense line, and of the more famous co-founder of Pragmatism, William James. These two strains of American common sense are placed in context of the larger Western common sense tradition. Each is shown to aim at finding a solid middle ground epistemologically between skeptical doubt and idealistic certitude that could serve as a stable basis for moral and political life. Witherspoon, the first great advocate and popularizer of Scottish Common Sense in America, gave the United States its first coherent, systematic common sense political theory, and that theory is here traced out as a common sense theory of politics for the first time. The first systematic text-based treatment of the moral and social thought of McCosh, the last great proponent of Scottish Common Sense in the American setting, is also provided. In James’ case, the first systematic treatment of the place of common sense in his philosophic worldview is rendered, and it is argued in the process that he is rightly understood as a kind of common sense philosopher. Together, Witherspoon, McCosh, and James offer a vision of man and society that avoids the rigidity of dogmatic foundationalism, on the one hand, and the slackness of foundationless ethics and politics, on the other

Decision-making strategies in the general practice

With regard to the question what is to be tran$mitted in teaching two aspects have to be considered: a) the contents of the specialty; and b) the problem-solving methods with regard to the specialty. On the first aspect an overwhelming amoUnt of book$ and articles has bee~ written in medicine. The second 8Spect is usually only mentioned in passing. In my opinion, ~his subject has thusfar been greatly undervalued. When one is unable to trace the - problem-solving processes how can anyone determine the efficscy, the effectivity, and the efficiency of this process, or value~ the outcome. To state it in Magerien terms: "If you do not know where to g;o, you may very well end up somewhere else- and not even know it." How physicians solve clinical problems is the main object of this research. The investigator studied and modeled two of the eldest and famous ways of pJroblei!Jlrsolving: the deductive and the inductive strategy9 with the modern probability reasoning viewed as an extension of the latter strategy. All 68 physicians who participated in this investigation used the inductive strategy for the -usually four - presented patient-problems. Within the inductive strategy three variants could be distinguished. The consequences of this finding are far-reaching. As the inductive strategy does not include a logical hierarchy of argumentationsteps, retracing of the process is impossible. (This aspect is also relate~ to our opinions about experience-knowledge end teaching)A As the hypothesis generation is prior to the acquisition of infot~tion, this latter aspect can only be viewed in the light of the former~ and thus limited to a small number of domains. As the hypothesis generation is - partly - unrelated to the total available amount of information, the decision making (chopsing the ultimate diagnostic hypothesis) will usually follow implicit~ personal trends and standards, e.g. satisfying minimal eicpectations (Satisficing Theory, Simon} or risk-avoiding prospects (Prospect Theory, Kahnemann & Tversky). It suggests a highly personal character of diagnostics and/or the therapeutic management, which is contradictory to general accessibility of medical knowledge and medical teaching. This feature of personal concepts easily links up with Polanyi's theory of "PeJrsonal" or 91Tacit Knowledge" as contrasted to "Objective Knowledge" (Popper) 9 which has general accessibility and validity. During the investigation this as~oct came forth. The framework of the investigation (patient simulation) end the special definitions and coding of illness elements (symptoms, signs9 tests) all~wed for comparing similar conceptions (diagnoses, treatments) ~ong the participants. These comparisons confirm Polanyi's theory and the concepts of inductive reasoning. Mutual comparibility of diagnoses seems hardly possible when analysing these conceptions into their basic elements (symptoms etc.). This aspect touches upon one of the main cornerstones of clinical ~edicine. When the starting positions have not been unequivocally defined treatment, .,;ie-Jed as the intervention in the natural course of a disease, can only lead t4:!1 uncertain outcomes. The lack of · standardized :medical definitions and a tmiform, unambiguous taxonomy inhibits the application of a formalised, normative decision theorry for clinical medicine. Future planning aims at a reconsideration of medical terminology~ medical taxonomy and medical problem-solving methods by means of clustering the basic elements of clinical medicine

Prehistoric Myths in Modern Political Philosophy

This book looks at how modern philosophers pass on myths about prehistory. Why do political philosophers talk so much about the Stone Age? The state of nature, the origin of property, the origin of government, and the primordial nature of inequality and war are popular topics in political philosophy, but are they being used as more than just illustrative examples? Does the best available evidence from archaeology and anthropology support or conflict with the stories being passed on by political philosophers? This book presents a philosophical look at the origin of civilization, examining political theories to show how claims about prehistory are used and presents evidence that much of what we think we know about human origins comes not from scientific investigation but from the imagination of philosophers