Finding Aid for the Elijah M. Walker Collection (MUM00460)

Collection consists of transcriptions of one diary of Caroline King (1851-1860) and 5 original diaries of Elijah Millington Walker (1848-1851)

Masterclass: international law and constitutional development in 19th century Europe (Part II)

1. Today, Hungary is a small Central-Eastern-European country making headlines with its domestic political and constitutional controversies. Yet, throughout its 1000-year history, this country had many struggles and developments, which, when put into a European comparative context, are relatively unknown and nevertheless very interesting. Hungary was similar to its Western-European counterparts in many ways: it was a monarchy, which joined the Roman Catholic Church upon its founding. It established a domestic administrative system, regulated land ownership and eventually established feudal representation. The pace of its development may have been a little slower sometimes than that of the West, but Hungarian scholars studied at the Western Universities, its rulers fought and consulted their foreign counterparts and the country had a normal-size territory to be considered a country, like any other, in Europe. 2. At the same time, Hungary was also different in many ways than its Western counterparts. The country only had a so-called historical constitution and no written constitution until the 20th century. Due to certain elements of this historical constitution, the structure of land ownership, local public administration and social structures remained the same throughout the middle ages. As a result of the Turkish occupation in the 16th-18th centuries, the country dipped into the second wave of serfdom. It did not embark on the road to a civil society as the West has after renaissance and reformation. Roman law was never officially received in Hungary and multiple codification attempts for domestic laws failed throughout the 18th-19th centuries. A closer examination of the 19th century constitutional development in Hungary and especially the rather unique dualist state of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy may provide additional meaning to legitimacy, sovereignty and multi-level governance in international law. A multitude of questions arise in this regard, such as the true significance of the 1867 Ausgleich between the Austrian Empire and Hungary from the perspective of international law, the relevance of domestic constitutional order within related states, etc. Taught together with dr. F. Dhondt (Legal History Institute)

Index of Maine Obituaries from The Morning Star, 1851 to 1860

Maine (only) obituaries compiled from issues of The Morning Star from 1851 through 1860. Information includes name, place and date of death (if listed), and issue where the obituary appears

BRAZILIAN BUSINESS CYCLES AND GROWTH FROM 1850 TO 2000

We studied the cyclical and growth properties of Brazilian per capita output from 1850 to 2000. Contrary to the experience of some developed countries, we did not find large changes in the volatility of per capita output. However, we obtained evidence that the oscillations in economic activity became more persistent after World War II.

Le traité de réciprocité 1854-1866

"Reciprocity is a relation between two independent powers, such that the citizens of each are guaranteed certain commercial privileges at the hands of the others". The arrangement obtained under the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 might perhaps be appropriately described as a partial "free-trade area" rather than as a "customs union" since the United States and the British North American Provinces were not assumed to draw up a common tariff schedule for their imports from the outside countries. Each participant maintains its own duties against other countries or even colonies.The Reciprocity Treaty permitted free access in the coastal fisheries to Americans and abolished duties on a wide range of natural products (grain, flour, fish, livestock, coal, timber and other less important natural produce). At the same time, American vessels were admitted to the use of Canadian canals on the same terms as British and colonial vessels. Reciprocity was to apply to Canadian vessels going to United States.In the late 1840's the B.N.A. Provinces were faced by that policy which the literature has called "Little Englandism". When Britain repealed the corn laws and gradually the preferential tariffs on timber the B.N.A. Provinces were shocked to be left on their own. A new commercial system had to be developed: reciprocity was the answer. But, it could have been something else: protection or annexion.The direction of the external trade changes with the Reciprocity Treaty. Before 1851, Britain was Canada's main partner (59% of Canada's Exports). But a decade later, the United States was both Canada's major supplier and its best customer. Neither the Treaty nor the loss of preference in the British Market succeeded in destroying the Trade of B.N.A. Provinces with the United Kingdom. In fact, trade with Britain was greater in 1865 than in 1854. Later, in 1870, Britain took back its leading position. What we see is a diversion of trade from Britain to the United States and back to Britain where the basic commercial connections were well established.The Treaty was disappointing for the "dream" of using the St. Lawrence as the main route to capture the trade of the West did not materialize.The consequence of abrogation was less unfortunate than had in some quarters been anticipated. The Treaty came late after the abolition of the preferential tariffs, and it was disturbed by major events (the crisis of 1857; the American Civil War). After the treaty, recovery of the American currency reconstruction, proximity of the two countries, a new boom in foreign investment in Canada, etc., combined to reduce considerably the potential blow to Canada of the Abrogation. The agreement lasted for twelve years and was finally overwhelmed by the rising tide of protectionism and commercial jealousies and political hostilities of the time.Reciprocity, Confederation, the Nation Policy, the St. Lawrence Seaway (1840/1950), the National Corporations, the pipelines are all the elements of the same continuum: economic and political integration of isolated markets in North America

Fertility transition in England and Wales: continuity and change

The focus of this paper is whether the transition from high to low fertility reveals continuity or discontinuity with the past. Our analyses of districts of England and Wales over time reveal an overall picture of continuity. Specifically, we show that (1) a substantial proportion of districts experienced pretransition variations in marital fertility that were so large that they are suggestive of deliberate fertility control; (2) the changes over time in the distributions of marital fertility levels and the relative importance of marital fertility levels to the determination of overall fertility levels were gradual and smooth; (3) the proportion of districts dominated by marital fertiliity variation, as opposed to nuptiality variation, increased gradually over time, and both marital fertility and nuptiality variations were present in all periods considered; and (4) there are important relationships between changes over time in marital fertility and socio-economic variables in periods both before and after the transition. The last conclusion is based on our estimated equations from the pooled cross-sectional, time-series data. Moreover, these estimated equations reveal relationships between changes in specific explanatory variables and changes in marital fertility that are very similar both before and after the onset of the transition