Access to rural non-farm livelihoods: Report of preliminary field work in Rakai District, Uganda

This district report represents the first output of the Phase I study of the capacity of poor people to access sustainable rural non-farm employment (RNFE) and livelihood opportunities in Uganda. The purpose of the research, implemented by the Natural Resources Institute of the UK, and funded by the British Government Department for International Development (DFID) under a collaborative agreement with the World Bank, is to inform and assist the Government of Uganda, DFID and the WB in formulating pro-poor RNFE policies. The project has two main outputs: 1. Understanding the factors that condition access to rural non-farm employment for the poor, and 2. Mechanisms for integrating these research results into relevant policy processes

Breaking the mold: a journey of the brick

Around the world practitioners and researchers are working on new material systems and technologies that center new ways to build. In this age of information, there are countless design frameworks, tools, machines available to us. We are a part of the fundamental shift in architecture that involves new modes of production and new material systems that redefine our role as architects. We have a role in addressing the context of each project, using architectural elements as tools for negotiation and consensus to build stronger communities. How can architecture contribute to improving global labor conditions, instilling dignity in manual labor, dismantling economic systems that mandate problematic class distinctions, and promoting social and environmental justice? The project titled breaking the mold: a journey of the brick investigates the nature of global practices in architecture and construction. It examines the ethics of production and consumption of materials, foregrounding the inequities that exist within our daily practices. I wanted to understand through this project the relationship of labor to specific means of production and to embody the engagement of people with the material. This project critically examines architectural drawings as a form of representation capable of fostering revelatory dialogues between analog and digital content. It draws from historic examples of drawings by the likes of Piranesi, Choisy, and Boullèe to create a form of digital representation that communicates architectural intent. The drawings in the project choreograph a critical dialogue between the digital pixel and the analog brick: both are basic elements operating within the larger economies of digital images and architectural construction; both are capable of world-building through known logics of aggregation; and both contribute, through recombination, to elaborate and sometimes ornamental patterns

Sun-Drying in Traditional Brickmaking: Strategies for Achieving Efficiency

This study investigated the utilization of currently available energy and its implication on the ecological production of architecture materials. The study focused on the sun-drying process used by craftsmen in the traditional brickmaking process, arguing that such a practice demonstrates ways of utilizing current energy that are informed by local knowledge and are ecological. Such a brick drying process was observed at two sites of traditional brickmaking in Central Java, Indonesia. The result of the study indicated that the drying process in brickmaking utilized various exposure strategies to maximize the potential amount of heat from the sun that can be transferred to the bricks, which in turn influenced the flow of the production process. The study then discussed the potential applications of such knowledge in the modern brick manufacturing process to create a more ecological production of architecture materials

The Bricks of St. Michael\u27s Church and Pompion Hill Chapel: A Historic and Scientific Study

Millions of tourists flock to Charleston, SC each year to visit the self-titled “most historic city in America,” without encountering the city’s full history. Racism, lack of historic documentation, and indifference omit the stories of Black people, both free and enslaved, from the popular history told about the creation of Charleston. Their historic absence has left researchers and scholars to read between the lines of primary sources and find new tools and methods to gather the information needed to create a more accurate and nuanced picture of the lives of Charleston’s enslaved. This thesis explores whether Portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (pXRF) is a reliable method for connecting the brickwork of extant buildings with the brickyard of manufacture. The results of this study will reveal another aspect of the role of slavery in the creation of Charleston’s built environment. Many enslaved laborers were highly trained and talented, and they engaged in skilled tasks such as laying bricks, plastering, creating the intricate carving seen in many buildings, and unskilled manual labor. Analysis of three Charleston area sites supplied the data used in the study: St. Michael’s Church downtown, Pompion Hill Chapel along the Cooper River in Huger, SC, and the brickyard at Parnassus Plantation. Romantic history tells us that the brickyard at Parnassus Plantation produced all the bricks used to construct the church and chapel, but the data reveals that not all the samples collected from Parnassus are compositionally similar to those of the church and chapel. They also show that the church and chapel are compositionally similar to each other. These results show the usefulness of compositional analysis to preservationists and the need for further study of the life of the owner of Parnassus Plantation, Zachariah Villepontoux. During data collection and analysis questions of the accuracy, user knowledge, and the suitability of pXRF for the compositional analysis of bricks had to be addressed

The blue and the red: the plain brick wall in architectural heritage of Shanghai (1866-1929)

La ricerca si concentra su alcuni edifici storici di Shanghai, in particolare quelli realizzati con i caratteristici mattoni rossi e blu. Molti di essi stanno oggi scomparendo a causa dei massicci e rapidi processi di riqualificazione urbana che caratterizzano la Shanghai contemporanea. L'elaborato cerca di mettere in evidenza che questo tipo di bicromia rappresenta un patrimonio caratteristico della architettura storica di Shanghai. Nonostante il valore storico, documentario e dell'antico di questi beni sia perlopiù attualmente ignorato, permangono diverse testimonianze architettoniche, destinate tuttavia ad un continuo e progressivo abbandono. Le cause di questa mancanza di attenzione possono essere rintracciate sia nella carenza di studi storici relativi a queste architetture, ancora inadeguati, sia nella cultura della "conservazione" nel contesto locale di Shanghai. Questa tesi rappresenta un primo tentativo di organizzare in modo sistematico le criticità e il panorama attuale di conoscenze su questi temi. I problemi e le questioni legate alla conservazione del patrimonio sopra brevemente descritto vengono esaminati a partire da un'analisi critica del suo status quo, con riferimento alle architetture presenti nella città di Shanghai e al sistema di protezione qui in uso. In tal modo vengono chiariti gli strumenti di tutela vigenti (leggi, linee guida, etc.) e l'organizzazione amministrativa ai vari livelli. Viene poi esaminato il concetto cinese di protezione e le attuali modalità di intervento sull'architettura storica. Attraverso un'analisi della storiografia disponibile su tale architettura, si propone inoltre un'indagine sul cambiamento di visione degli studiosi sul tema oggetto di ricerca, in modo da rilevare le idee e i punti di vista che hanno influenzato il destino degli edifici. Lo studio storico si concentra sulla "riscoperta" dei valori suddetti e sugli aspetti di continuità, ancora oggi visibili ed incorporati negli edifici analizzati a diversi livelli: urbanistico, architettonico, tecnologico e materico. Particolare attenzione è rivolta ai complessi e dinamici contesti storici che hanno avuto una relazione con il patrimonio analizzato ed in particolare agli influssi delle condizioni sociali, politiche, economiche ed architettoniche. Si ritiene che gli architetti e le architetture vittoriane dal Regno Unito siano le fonti primarie del linguaggio bicromatico dell'architettura di Shanghai. A partire da questa ipotesi la ricerca esplora i legami tra la cultura britannica e l'architettura vittoriana e gli edifici costruiti a Shanghai tra il 1866 e il 1929. Questi legami sono da ricercare principalmente negli architetti britannici e nelle loro idee, nonché nell'estensione dell'influenza dell'architettura vittoriana nella costruzione di Shanghai durante il periodo compreso tra il 1866 e il 1929. La ricerca esplora a diversi livelli come sia stato importato e diffuso il linguaggio costruttivo bicromo a Shanghai nelle sue architetture, attraverso una migrazione tra culture e paesi, attraverso contesti dinamici. Si indaga anche il tema della traduzione e dell'adattamento alle condizioni locali del linguaggio utilizzato in questi specifici modelli architettonici, attraverso approcci diversi e con il contributo di clienti, costruttori e artigiani nativi. La testimonianza architettonica ha una stretta relazione con la sostanza materiale e tangibile e con la tecnologia. Sulla base di una comparazione della letteratura afferente a diverse culture e paesi, la ricerca esplora fonti occidentali relative alle tecniche costruttive cinesi legate a queste architetture, includendo connessioni e mancanze. Grazie a questa ricerca multidisciplinare e ad un'indagine sul campo è stato possibile dar conto sia della continuità sia del decadimento della lunga tradizione legata all'utilizzo del mattone blu cinese, oltre che del tradizionale sistema costruttivo dell'architettura cinese. La ricerca investiga poi i motivi dell'arrivo e dell'uso prevalente del mattone rosso proveniente dalla cultura occidentale nella costruzione della Shanghai internazionale. Si "riscopre" come i mattoni moderni e le tecniche vittoriane importate abbiano determinato le forme delle architetture bicromatiche e come essi abbiano favorito il decadimento della tradizione architettonica cinese. Inoltre la ricerca sostiene che la lingua straniera della policromia costruttiva sia stata incorporata nella locale cultura architettonica. Questo è riscontrabile in un impatto a lungo termine individuabile nelle interazioni e nella trasmissione della conoscenza e della tecnologia, dimostrato dalla maestria con cui sono realizzate le murature bicrome. Lo si può notare attraverso una lettura comparata tra i materiali occidentali e quelli cinesi, e tra l'evidenza testuale e l'evidenza architettonica. La ricerca infine ri-definisce i termini prevalenti "mattone blu" e "mattone rosso" sulla base del cambiamento nella fabbricazione dei mattoni, e presta particolare attenzione ai dati storici su quei mattoni prodotti nel periodo moderno, mirando ad un ulteriore studio sulle loro caratteristiche e il loro deterioramento.The research focuses on Shanghai’s historical buildings of which the plain brick wall is constituted of both blue brick and red brick. They are lost in translation and transformation in the rapid and massive redevelopment nowadays. Thereupon the dissertation argues that this sort of duotone plain brick wall is a specific built heritage in Shanghai, their historic value, documentary value, and age value are disregarded but actually retained in the existent architectural evidence, with the inevitable deterioration continuously added. The disregard is ascribed to both the problematic “conservation” at Shanghai and the inadequate historical studies on the architecture, which is a first step in organizing the issues and the present state of knowledge on the matter. It starts with the status quo of such heritage through an investigation of the historical architectures and areas. Their situation displayed in the space of Shanghai City and in the space of Shanghai’s protection system involves the laws, policies, and the administrative service of cultural heritage in China at different levels, as well as the recent history of the development. It thus clarifies the official tools and the problems in the protection system in terms of such heritage. The Chinese concept on protection and the way of intervention made to such historical architecture are also examined. Furthermore, the scholarly changing vision is explored through an overall review of the historiography upon such architecture, revealing the hidden ideas and views that have influenced the fate of such buildings. The historical study centers on rediscovering the above-mentioned values and the continuities embedded in such historic buildings in different levels of urban, architecture, technology and material. Particular attention is paid to the historical contexts. It is assumed that the Victorian architects and architectures from UK are the primary sources of such dichromatic language of architecture. For this assumption the research explores the links between the British culture in Victorian architecture and the contemporary buildings erected at Shanghai. These links are excavated mainly through the British architects and their ideas, the extension of the Victorian space, and the Victorian architectures in building Shanghai during 1866-1929. The research explores at different levels how the language of constructional bichrome was imported, localized, and diffused in Shanghai through the architectures across cultures and countries in the dynamic contexts. It also explores the translation and the adaptation of the language embedded in the specific models of architecture through different approaches, with the contribution from the native clients, builders, and artisans also. The architectural evidence has interwoven the tangible material substance and the technology. Based on a comparative literature review across cultures and countries, it explores the western sources of the Chinese technique publications related to the object architectures, including their links and lacunas. Based on a multi-disciplinary research and the field investigation, it rediscovers both the continuity and the decay of the long-term tradition of Chinese blue brick and the solid constructing system of Chinese architecture testified by and documented in the duotone plain brick walls. Moreover, it rediscovers the other reasons of the arrival and the prevailing use of the western red brick in building the international Shanghai. It rediscovers how the modern brick materials and the localized Victorian techniques determined the forms in those dichromatic architectures and how they favoured the decay of the Chinese architectural tradition. Thereupon, it argues for the fact that the foreign language of constructional polychromy was embedded in local culture of architecture due to the interactions and the transmission of knowledge and technology, which is proved by the craftsmanship presented in those walls through a comparative reading between the western source and the Chinese source, and between the textual evidence and the architectural evidence. Besides, it re-defines the prevalent terms “blue brick” and “red brick” based on the changing industry of brickmaking, and pays special attention to the historical data on those bricks produced in the modern period, aiming at a further study on their characteristics and the deterioration.DIPARTIMENTO DI ARCHITETTURA E STUDI URBANI25DI BIASE, CAROLIN

One Man's Trash is Another Man's Treasure: The Transition of Clinker Brick from Disposable to Decorative

The exact origin of the name clinker brick is unknown, however it is said that the name may have been derived from the “quality imparted by vitrification, which causes them to give a clinking sound when struck.” In England, the 1836 Penny Cyclopedia described clinkers (also known as burrs) as “black-looking masses of vitrified brick...” The historian, Charles Thomas Davis described them as “ruptured” and by 1912 the closest definition to its current form, was given by Geologist Heinrich Ries who called the brick “roughened, discolored, and distorted.” Historically, the accidental formation of clinker brick was caused by being situated too close to the heat source of a stationary kiln. This resulted in a loss for brick makers forcing them to discard the material. In the late nineteenth century, as brick production became more uniform, clinker brick were eliminated. However, simultaneously an aesthetic shift occurred, embracing the irregularity of the brick. This phenomenon was witnessed in the architecture of the Arts and Crafts Movement and Tudor Revival. Architects of these styles believed in an anti-industrialist ideology, emphasizing craftsmanship and the use natural local materials that embodied roughness, variation, and irregularity within architecture. They used the warped features of clinker brick to impart what they believed was a rustic aesthetic and an instant sense of age to a structure. In major cities, the popularity of clinker brick was illustrated through its implementation on apartment buildings especially “garden apartments” during the construction boom of the 1920s. The material was used in conjunction with varied architectural styles (apart from the two it was primarily associated with). The misshapen brick allowed for builders to differentiate residences in an increasingly growing metropolis of similar structures. Though the brick embodied the ideologies of the Arts and Crafts and Tudor Revival visually, philosophically their use was contradictory. The two styles emphasized unaltered natural materials however, as clinker brick rose in popularity they became a mass produced commodity, heavily monitored to achieve a perfect distortion. This eliminated its natural ability to mirror the textures of nature, but instead it was forcefully used to stage such an aesthetic. Additionally, the Arts and Crafts movement sought after making crafts affordable to the average person. However, because of clinker brick’s popularity and time consuming production process, its price rose significantly higher than the average common brick. Despite the philosophical irony in the use of clinker brick, by the early twentieth century, the material was highly popular and produced by various brick manufacturing companies throughout the country

A sense of place and everyday heritage: the clinker brick walls of suburban London

Purpose: This paper aims to explore the heritage value and importance to place identity of overlooked material elements and heritage objects in the built environment. Design/methodology/approach: The discussion is exemplified by clinker bricks, initially unwanted products of 19th century manufacture created in overheated kilns, which were revalued and deployed between 1880 and 1914 by arts and crafts enthusiasts. Findings: The authors contend that they contribute to heritage in three ways: firstly, by adding irregularity, sensory diversity, idiosyncrasy and individuality; secondly, by testifying to local connections with sites of supply, geology and artisanal expertise; thirdly, by potentially inspiring new forms of creativity in material making and building. The authors conclude by highlighting how these brick walls are currently being incorporated into local conservation plans. Research limitations/implications: The work solely focuses on the bricks used in one London suburb. However, this allows a suitable focus to be adopted for the study. Practical implications: This paper argues that the clinker brick walls serve as an exemplary case through which place managers and marketers might focus more substantively on overlooked aspects of the material environment of places, discerning overlooked features that can significantly add to developing a sense of place. Social implications: This paper endeavours to enrich social and cultural relationships with place by seeking to foster more attuned approaches to noticing that which is commonly overlooked and subsequently enquiring about its provenance, origins and qualities. The paper provides examples of the incorporation of the clinker brick walls into local conservation and heritage plans. Originality/value: There is little written about mundane and everyday materialities that, the authors argue, are so integral to a sense of place. The authors bring forth ideas about aesthetics, materiality, place and the everyday to investigate a hitherto neglected realm of study

Research on the Exploration of Sprayed Clay Material and Modeling System

As a traditional building material, clay has been used by humans for a long time. From early civilisations, to the modern dependence on new technologies, the craft of clay making is commonly linked with the use of moulds, handmade creations, ceramic extruders, etc. (Schmandt and Besserat, 1977). Clay in the form of bricks is one of the oldest building materials known (Fernandes et al, 2010). This research expands the possibilities offered by standardised bricks by testing types of clay, forms, shapes, porosity, and structural methods. The traditional way of working with clay relies on human craftsmanship and is based on the use of semi-solid clay (Fernandes et al., 2010). However, there is little research on the use of clay slurry. With the rise of 3D printing systems in recent years, research and development has been emerging on using clay as a 3D printing filament (Gürsoy, 2018). Researchers have discovered that in order for 3D-printed clay slurry to solidify quickly to support the weight of the added layers during printing, curing agents such as lime, coal ash, cement, etc. have to be added to the clay slurry. After adding these substances, clay is difficult to be reused and can have a negative effect on the environment (Chen et al., 2021). In this study, a unique method for manufacturing clay elements of intricate geometries is proposed with the help of an internal skeleton that can be continuously reused. The study introduces the process of applying clay on a special structure through spraying and showcases how this method creates various opportunities for customisation of production