Flumethrin transmits an inhibitory (punishing) component in PER conditioning.

<p>The figure shows the conditioned responses in the second phase of the experiment. Age/+ continued to receive sucrose as a reward, Age/− received no sucrose reward anymore (extinction), and Age+Flu/− received Age then followed by Flu, without sucrose reward. Number of animals in each group (n = 90).</p

Olfactory conditioning of animals exposed to flumethrin within the colony.

<p>Flu pre-treatment (control): PER conditioning before the flumethrin-treatment period; Flu treatment: PER conditioning during the flumethrin-treatment period; Flu post-treatment: PER conditioning two weeks after the flumethrin-treatment period. Number of animals in each group (n = 90).</p

The effect of flumethrin as a reinforcing component.

<p>Three groups were tested with <i>Age</i> as the CS in all three groups. The control group received 30% sucrose solution as US, the flumethrin 10 group received 10 µg/g of flumethrin-sucrose solution as US, the flumethrin 100 group received 100 µg/g of flumethrin-sucrose solution as US. Number of animals in each group (n = 90).</p

Means±SE of bee mortality when fed with 10 ug/g f<i>lumethrin</i> sucrose (Flumethrin 10 group) or 100 ug/g (Flumethrin 100 group) <i>Flumethrin</i> sucrose solution and control group (each group n = 30).

<p>Means±SE of bee mortality when fed with 10 ug/g f<i>lumethrin</i> sucrose (Flumethrin 10 group) or 100 ug/g (Flumethrin 100 group) <i>Flumethrin</i> sucrose solution and control group (each group n = 30).</p

Flumethrin as a component of the CS or US.

<p>Five groups were run in parallel. Age +: CS: Age, US: sucrose; Flu+Age/+: CS: first Flu then Age, US: sucrose; Age/−: CS: Age, no US; Age+Flu/+: CS: Age first then Flu, US: sucrose; Flu/+: CS: Flu, US: sucrose. Number of animals in each group (n = 90).</p

Effects of food quality and predator danger on individual feeding time.

<p>Bar patterns and standard error bars as in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0075841#pone-0075841-g002" target="_blank">Fig. 2</a>. Different letters indicate significant differences. Mean feeding times at the feeder arrays in (A) experiment 1, (B) experiment 2, and (C) experiment 3 parts A and B. In experiment 3 part A, feeders had sucrose only (bars with thick lines). Part B used the same range of sucrose concentrations, but with the indicated hornet species at the higher sucrose concentrations.</p

Effects of food quality and predator danger on individual forager choices.

<p>Bar patterns and error bars as in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0075841#pone-0075841-g002" target="_blank">Fig. 2</a>. Different letters indicate significant differences. We show the proportion of bee choices for the feeders in (A) experiment 1, (B) experiment 2, and (C) experiment 3 parts A and B. In experiment 3 part A, feeders had sucrose only (bars with thick lines). Part B used the same range of sucrose concentrations, but with the indicated hornet species at the higher sucrose concentrations.</p

Hornets are a threat.

<p>Hornets (scaled photos shown) are (A) attacked by <i>A. cerana</i> colonies and (B) attack <i>A. cerana</i> foraging on natural flowers. Standard error bars are shown. We indicate significant differences with different letters.</p

How bee colonies allocate foraging among food sources with different food qualities and levels of predator danger.

<p>Sucrose-only feeders are shown as white bars, the butterfly control as a striped bar and the small (sm) and big hornet species as gray and black bars, respectively. Standard error bars are shown. In each graph, different letters indicate significant differences. We show the mean number of foragers at the feeder arrays in (A) experiment 1, (B) experiment 2, and (C) experiment 3 parts A and B. In experiment 3 part A, feeders had sucrose only (bars with thick lines). Part B used the same range of sucrose concentrations, but with the indicated hornet species at the higher sucrose concentrations.</p

Modulation of olfactory learning in honey bees data

Modulation of olfactory learning in honey bees dat