Finger weeder for cabbage and lettuce cultures

Summer 2002 we compared finger weeder against net harrow and herbicides in cabbage. Field trial 2003 was dedicated to lettuce: we compared different intensities of finger weeding in two different lettuce cultivars

k:n ja t:n radikaali astevaihtelu Raahen rajamurteessa

Tiivistelmä. Sivuaineen pro gradu -tutkielmassani olen käsitellyt Raahen vanhassa murteessa esiintyvää k:n ja t:n radikaalia astevaihtelua rajamurteen näkökulmasta. Tutkielman keskeisinä tavoitteina on ollut selvittää, millaiset k:n ja t:n heikkoasteiset edustukset ovat eri äänneympäristöissä Raahen murteessa, ja miltä osin nämä edustukset poikkeavat tai yhtenevät Raahen naapurimurteissa esiintyvien edustusten kanssa. Tällä tavoin olen tarkastellut, miten Raahen asema rajamurteena keski- ja pohjoispohjalaismurteiden välissä näkyy astevaihtelun osalta: yhtyykö Raahen murre selkeästi jompaankumpaan murrealueeseen, vai onko astevaihtelussa havaittavissa piirteitä sekä pohjoisista että eteläisistä naapurimurteista. Tutkimusaineistoni koostuu Digitaalisen muoto-opin arkiston kokoelmista sekä Oulun nauhoitearkiston nauhoitteista. Molempiin arkistoihin on kerätty 1800-luvun lopulla syntyneiden raahelaisten murretta. Olen tutkinut Raahen murteessa esiintyvää astevaihtelua perinteisen dialektologian mukaisesti ja luokitellut aineistosta löytämäni heikkoasteiset edustukset kolmeen eri pääryhmään: heikon asteen vastine 1) kahden samanlaisen lyhyen vokaalin välissä, 2) kahden erilaisen lyhyen vokaalin välissä ja 3) pitkän vokaalin tai siihen palautuvan diftongin jäljessä. Jälkimmäiset kaksi ryhmää olen jakanut edelleen kahteen alaryhmään: heikon asteen edustus illabiaalivokaalin edellä ja labiaalivokaalin edellä. Näiden ryhmien sisällä olen käsitellyt k:n ja t:n heikon asteen edustukset kaikissa mahdollisissa vokaaliyhtymissä ja verrannut samalla Raahen murteen edustuksia Raahen naapurimurteisiin. Vertailussa olen hyödyntänyt astevaihtelusuhteista aiemmin tehtyjä tutkimuksia Raahen naapurimurteiden Kala- ja Lestijokilaakson, Pyhäjoen sekä Oulun murteen osalta. Tutkimuksessa selvisi, että murreraja keski- ja pohjoispohjalaisten murteiden välillä on k:n ja t:n radikaalin astevaihtelun suhteen häilyvä. Tarkasteltaessa klusiilien heikkoasteisia edustuksia kahden samanlaisen vokaalin välissä sekä labiaalivokaalin edellä murreraja näyttäisi kulkevan Raahen eteläpuolella Pyhäjoen kohdalla, useimmiten Pyhäjoen ja Kalajoen välissä. Oulussa, Raahessa ja usein myös Pyhäjoella heikon asteen vastineena on kahden samanlaisen vokaalin välissä kato ja labiaalivokaalin edellä v. Kala- ja Lestijokilaaksossa tavataan puolestaan j-edustusta. Raahen murre yhtyy näissä äänneympäristöissä siis enemmän pohjoispohjalaismurteisiin kuin keskipohjalaismurteisiin. Illabiaalivokaalin edellä olevien edustusten osalta tilanne on toinen. Osin Oulu, Raahe ja Pyhäjoki erottuvat yhä omaksi yhtenäiseksi alueekseen yksinomaisella j-edustuksella, kun taas Kala- ja Lestijokilaaksossa j:n rinnalla tavataan runsaasti tavunrajallista edustusta. Useissa äänneympäristöissä Raahen murteessa esiintyy kuitenkin yksinomaisena heikon asteen vastineena pelkkä tavunraja, mikä yhdistää Raahen murteen ennemmin keskipohjalaisiin murteisiin kuin pohjoispohjalaisiin murteisiin. Näissä tapauksissa linja Raahen ja Kala- ja Lestijokilaakson välillä ei kuitenkaan aina ole yhteneväinen, sillä Raahen ja jokilaaksojen välissä sijaitseva Pyhäjoki yhtyy toisinaan siirtymä-äänteellisellä edustuksellaan Oulun murteeseen. Hieman yllättävä tutkimustulos on myös se, että toisinaan Raahen murteessa illabiaalivokaalin edellä esiintyy yksinomaisena tavunrajallista edustusta jopa sellaisissa äänneympäristöissä, joissa se ei ole tavallinen edes Kala- ja Lestijokilaaksossa. Tutkimus osoittaa siis sen, että radikaalin astevaihtelun osalta keski- ja pohjoispohjalaisten murteiden välille ei muodostu tarkkaa murrerajaa. Raahen alue on kuitenkin selvästi rajavyöhykettä kahden erilaisen astevaihtelusysteemin välissä, joiden välillä Raahen murre tasapainottelee yhtyen välillä pohjoisiin ja välillä eteläisiin naapurimurteisiinsa

Sticky prices in the euro area: a summary of new micro evidence

This paper presents original evidence on price setting in the euro area at the individual level. We use micro data on consumer (CPI) and producer (PPI) prices, as well as survey information. Our main findings are: (i) prices in the euro area are sticky and more so than in the US; (ii) there is evidence of heterogeneity and of asymmetries in price setting behaviour; (iii) downward price rigidity is only slightly more marked than upward price rigidity and (iv) implicit or explicit contracts and coordination failure theories are important, whereas menu or information costs are judged much less relevant by firms. --Price setting,Price stickiness,Consumer prices,Producer prices,survey data

Price setting in the euro area: Some stylized facts from Individual Consumer Price Data

This paper documents patterns of price setting at the retail level in the euro area. A set of stylized facts on the frequency and size of price changes is presented along with an econometric investigation of their main determinants. Price adjustment in the euro area can be summarized in six stylized facts. First, prices of most products change rarely. The average monthly frequency of price adjustment is 15 p.c., compared to about 25 p.c. in the US. Second, the frequency of price changes is characterized by substantial crossproduct heterogeneity and pronounced sectoral patterns: prices of (oilrelated) energy and unprocessed food products change very often, while price adjustments are less frequent for processed food products, nonenergy industrial goods and services. Third, crosscountry heterogeneity exists but is less pronounced. Fourth, price decreases are not uncommon. Fifth, price increases and decreases are sizeable compared to aggregate and sectoral inflation rates. Sixth, price changes are not highly synchronized across pricesetters. Moreover, the frequency of price changes in the euro area is related to a number of factors, in particular seasonality, outlet type, indirect taxation, use of attractive prices as well as aggregate or productspecific inflation.

Price setting in the euro area: Some stylized facts from Individual Consumer Price Data

This paper documents patterns of price setting at the retail level in the euro area, summarized in six stylized facts. First, the average euro area monthly frequency of price adjustment is 15 p.c., compared to about 25 p.c. in the US. Second, the frequency of price changes is characterized by substantial cross product heterogeneity - prices of oil and unprocessed food products change very often, while price adjustments are less frequent for processed food, non energy industrial goods and services. Third, cross country heterogeneity exists but is less pronounced. Fourth, price decreases are not uncommon. Fifth, price increases and decreases are sizeable compared to aggregate and sectoral inflation rates. Sixth, price changes are not highly synchronized across retailers. Moreover, the frequency of price changes in the euro area is related to several factors, such as seasonality, outlet type, indirect taxation, pricing practices as well as aggregate or product specific inflation.Price-setting, consumer price, frequency of price change.

Price setting in the euro area: some stylized facts from individual consumer price data

This paper documents patterns of price setting at the retail level in the euro area, summarized in six stylized facts. First, the average euro area monthly frequency of price adjustment is 15 p.c., compared to about 25 p.c. in the US. Second, the frequency of price changes is characterized by substantial cross product heterogeneity - prices of oil and unprocessed food products change very often, while price adjustments are less frequent for processed food, non energy industrial goods and services. Third, cross country heterogeneity exists but is less pronounced. Fourth, price decreases are not uncommon. Fifth, price increases and decreases are sizeable compared to aggregate and sectoral inflation rates. Sixth, price changes are not highly synchronized across retailers. Moreover, the frequency of price changes in the euro area is related to several factors, such as seasonality, outlet type, indirect taxation, pricing practices as well as aggregate or product specific inflation. JEL Classification: E31, D40, C25consumer price, frequency of price change, Pricesetting

Sticky Prices in The Euro Area: a Summary of New Micro Evidence

This paper presents original evidence on price setting in the euro area at the individual level. We use micro data on consumer (CPI) and producer (PPI) prices, as well as survey information. Our main findings are: (i) prices in the euro area are sticky and more so than in the US; (ii) there is evidence of heterogeneity and of asymmetries in price setting behaviour; (iii) downward price rigidity is only slightly more marked than upward price rigidity and (iv) implicit or explicit contracts and coordination failure theories are important, whereas menu or information costs are judged much less relevant by firms.

Sticky prices in the euro area: a summary of new micro evidence

This paper presents original evidence on price setting in the euro area at the individual level. We use micro data on consumer (CPI) and producer (PPI) prices, as well as survey information. Our main findings are: (i) prices in the euro area are sticky and more so than in the US; (ii) there is evidence of heterogeneity and of asymmetries in price setting behaviour; (iii) downward price rigidity is only slightly more marked than upward price rigidity and (iv) implicit or explicit contracts and coordination failure theories are important, whereas menu or information costs are judged much less relevant by firms. JEL Classification: C25, D40, E31consumer prices, price setting, Price stickiness, producer prices, survey data

Price Setting in the Euro Area: Some Stylized Facts from Individual Consumer Price Data.

This paper documents patterns of price setting at the retail level in the euro area. A set of stylized facts on the frequency and size of price changes is presented along with an econometric investigation of their main determinants. Price adjustment in the euro area can be summarized in six stylized facts. First, prices of most products change rarely. The average monthly frequency of price adjustment is 15 p.c., compared to about 25 p.c. in the US. Second, the frequency of price changes is characterized by substantial cross-product heterogeneity and pronounced sectoral patterns: prices of (oil-related) energy and unprocessed food products change very often, while price adjustments are less frequent for processed food products, non-energy industrial goods and services. Third, cross-country heterogeneity exists but is less pronounced. Fourth, price decreases are not uncommon. Fifth, price increases and decreases are sizeable compared to aggregate and sectoral inflation rates. Sixth, price changes are not highly synchronized across price-setters. Moreover, the frequency of price changes in the euro area is related to a number of factors, in particular seasonality, outlet type, indirect taxation, use of attractive prices as well as aggregate or product-specific inflation.Price-setting ; consumer price ; frequency of price change.

Sticky Prices in the Euro Area: A Summary of New Micro Evidence,

This paper presents original evidence on price setting in the euro area at the individual level. We use micro data on consumer (CPI) and producer (PPI) prices, as well as survey information. Our main findings are: (i) prices in the euro area are sticky and more so than in the US; (ii) there is evidence of heterogeneity and of asymmetries in price setting behaviour; (iii) downward price rigidity is only slightly more marked than upward price rigidity and (iv) implicit or explicit contracts and coordination failure theories are important, whereas menu or information costs are judged much less relevant by firms.Price setting ; Price stickiness ; Consumer prices ; Producer prices ; Survey data.