Transport Function of the Renal Type IIa Na+/Pi Cotransporter Is Codetermined by Residues in Two Opposing Linker Regions

Two highly similar regions in the predicted first intracellular (ICL-1) and third extracellular loop (ECL-3) of the type IIa Na+/Pi cotransporter (NaPi-IIa) have been shown previously to contain functionally important sites by applying the substituted cysteine accessibility method (SCAM). Incubation in methanethiosulfonate (MTS) reagents of mutants that contain novel cysteines in both loops led to full inhibition of cotransport activity. To elucidate further the role these regions play in defining the transport mechanism, a double mutant (A203C-S460C) was constructed with novel cysteines in each region. The effect of cysteine modification by different MTS reagents on two electrogenic transport modes (leak and cotransport) was investigated. MTSEA (2-aminoethyl MTS hydrobromide) and MTSES (MTS ethylsulfonate) led to full inhibition of cotransport and increased the leak, whereas incubation in MTSET (2-[trimethylammonium]ethyl MTS bromide) inhibited only cotransport. The behavior of other double mutants with a cysteine retained at one site and hydrophobic or hydrophilic residues substituted at the other site, indicated that most likely only Cys-460 was modifiable, but the residue at Ala-203 was critical for conferring the leak and cotransport mode behavior. Substrate interaction with the double mutant was unaffected by MTS exposure as the apparent Pi and Na+ affinities for Pi-induced currents and respective activation functions were unchanged after cysteine modification. This suggested that the modified site did not interfere with substrate recognition/binding, but prevents translocation of the fully loaded carrier. The time-dependency of cotransport loss and leak growth during modification of the double cysteine mutant was reciprocal, which suggested that the modified site is a kinetic codeterminant of both transport modes. The behavior is consistent with a kinetic model for NaPi-IIa that predicts mutual exclusiveness of both transport modes. Together, these findings suggest that parts of the opposing linker regions are associated with the NaPi-IIa transport pathway

The renal type IIa Na/Pi cotransporter: Structure-function relationships

The type IIa Na/Pi cotransporter mediates proximal tubular brush-border membrane secondary active phosphate (Pi) flux. It is rate limiting in tubular Pi reabsorption and, thus, a final target in many physiological and pathophysiological situations of altered renal Pi handling (1-4). In the present short review, we will briefly summarize our current knowledge about the transport mechanism (cycle) as well as particular regions of the transporter protein ("molecular domains”) that potentially determine transport characteristic

Structure–Function Relations of the First and Fourth Predicted Extracellular Linkers of the Type IIa Na+/Pi Cotransporter: I. Cysteine Scanning Mutagenesis

The putative first intracellular and third extracellular linkers are known to play important roles in defining the transport properties of the type IIa Na+-coupled phosphate cotransporter (Kohler, K., I.C. Forster, G. Stange, J. Biber, and H. Murer. 2002b. J. Gen. Physiol. 120:693–705). To investigate whether other stretches that link predicted transmembrane domains are also involved, the substituted cysteine accessibility method (SCAM) was applied to sites in the predicted first and fourth extracellular linkers (ECL-1 and ECL-4). Mutants based on the wild-type (WT) backbone, with substituted novel cysteines, were expressed in Xenopus oocytes, and their function was assayed by isotope uptake and electrophysiology. Functionally important sites were identified in both linkers by exposing cells to membrane permeant and impermeant methanethiosulfonate (MTS) reagents. The cysteine modification reaction rates for sites in ECL-1 were faster than those in ECL-4, which suggested that the latter were less accessible from the extracellular medium. Generally, a finite cotransport activity remained at the end of the modification reaction. The change in activity was due to altered voltage-dependent kinetics of the Pi-dependent current. For example, cys substitution at Gly-134 in ECL-1 resulted in rate-limiting, voltage-independent cotransport activity for V ≤ −80 mV, whereas the WT exhibited a linear voltage dependency. After cys modification, this mutant displayed a supralinear voltage dependency in the same voltage range. The opposite behavior was documented for cys substitution at Met-533 in ECL-4. Modification of cysteines at two other sites in ECL-1 (Ile-136 and Phe-137) also resulted in supralinear voltage dependencies for hyperpolarizing potentials. Taken together, these findings suggest that ECL-1 and ECL-4 may not directly form part of the transport pathway, but specific sites in these linkers can interact directly or indirectly with parts of NaPi-IIa that undergo voltage-dependent conformational changes and thereby influence the voltage dependency of cotransport

Renal phosphaturia during metabolic acidosis revisited: molecular mechanisms for decreased renal phosphate reabsorption

During metabolic acidosis (MA), urinary phosphate excretion increases and contributes to acid removal. Two Na+-dependent phosphate transporters, NaPi-IIa (Slc34a1) and NaPi-IIc (Slc34a3), are located in the brush border membrane (BBM) of the proximal tubule and mediate renal phosphate reabsorption. Transcriptome analysis of kidneys from acid-loaded mice revealed a large decrease in NaPi-IIc messenger RNA (mRNA) and a smaller reduction in NaPi-IIa mRNA abundance. To investigate the contribution of transporter regulation to phosphaturia during MA, we examined renal phosphate transporters in normal and Slc34a1-gene ablated (NaPi-IIa KO) mice acid-loaded for 2 and 7days. In normal mice, urinary phosphate excretion was transiently increased after 2days of acid loading, whereas no change was found in Slc34a1−/− mice. BBM Na/Pi cotransport activity was progressively and significantly decreased in acid-loaded KO mice, whereas in WT animals, a small increase after 2days of treatment was seen. Acidosis increased BBM NaPi-IIa abundance in WT mice and NaPi-IIc abundance in WT and KO animals. mRNA abundance of NaPi-IIa and NaPi-IIc decreased during MA. Immunohistochemistry did not indicate any change in the localization of NaPi-IIa and NaPi-IIc along the nephron. Interestingly, mRNA abundance of both Slc20 phosphate transporters, Pit1 and Pit2, was elevated after 7days of MA in normal and KO mice. These data demonstrate that phosphaturia during acidosis is not caused by reduced protein expression of the major Na/Pi cotransporters NaPi-IIa and NaPi-IIc and suggest a direct inhibitory effect of low pH mainly on NaPi-IIa. Our data also suggest that Pit1 and Pit2 transporters may play a compensatory rol

Acute parathyroid hormone differentially regulates renal brush border membrane phosphate cotransporters

Renal phosphate reabsorption across the brush border membrane (BBM) in the proximal tubule is mediated by at least three transporters, NaPi-IIa (SLC34A1), NaPi-IIc (SLC34A3), and Pit-2 (SLC20A2). Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a potent phosphaturic factor exerting an acute and chronic reduction in proximal tubule phosphate reabsorption. PTH acutely induces NaPi-IIa internalization from the BBM and lysosomal degradation, but its effects on NaPi-IIc and Pit-2 are unknown. In rats adapted to low phosphate diet, acute (30 and 60min) application of PTH decreased BBM phosphate transport rates both in the absence and the presence of phosphonoformic acid, an inhibitor of SLC34 but not SLC20 transporters. Immunohistochemistry showed NaPi-IIa expression in the S1 to the S3 segment of superficial and juxtamedullary nephrons; NaPi-IIc was only detectable in S1 segments and Pit-2 in S1 and weakly in S2 segments of superficial and juxtamedullary nephrons. PTH reduced NaPi-IIa staining in the BBM with increased intracellular and lysosomal appearance. NaPi-IIa internalization was most prominent in S1 segments of superficial nephrons. We did not detect changes in NaPi-IIc and Pit-2 staining over this time period. Blockade of lysosomal protein degradation with leupeptin revealed NaPi-IIa accumulation in lysosomes, but no lysosomal staining for NaPi-IIc or Pit-2 could be detected. Immunoblotting of BBM confirmed the reduction in NaPi-IIa abundance and the absence of any effect on NaPi-IIc expression. Pit-2 protein abundance was also significantly reduced by PTH. Thus, function and expression of BBM phosphate cotransporters are differentially regulated allowing for fine-tuning of renal phosphate reabsorptio

Expression and regulation of the renal Na/phosphate cotransporter NaPi-IIa in a mouse model deficient for the PDZ protein PDZK1

Inorganic phosphate (Pi) is reabsorbed in the renal proximal tubule mainly via the type-IIa sodium-phosphate cotransporter (NaPi-IIa). This protein is regulated tightly by different factors, among them dietary Pi intake and parathyroid hormone (PTH). A number of PDZ-domain-containing proteins have been shown to interact with NaPi-IIa in vitro, such as Na+/H+ exchanger-3 regulatory factor-1 (NHERF1) and PDZK1. PDZK1 is highly abundant in kidney and co-localizes with NaPi-IIa in the brush border membrane of proximal tubules. Recently, a knock-out mouse model for PDZK1 (Pdzk1−/−) has been generated, allowing the role of PDZK1 in the expression and regulation of the NaPi-IIa cotransporter to be examined in in vivo and in ex vivo preparations. The localization of NaPi-IIa and other proteins interacting with PDZK1 in vitro [Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE3), chloride-formate exchanger (CFEX)/putative anion transporter-1 (PAT1), NHERF1] was not altered in Pdzk1−/− mice. The abundance of NaPi-IIa adapted to acute and chronic changes in dietary Pi intake, but steady-state levels of NaPi-IIa were reduced in Pdzk1−/− under a Pi rich diet. This was paralleled by a higher urinary fractional Pi excretion. The abundance of the anion exchanger CFEX/PAT1 (SLC26A6) was also reduced. In contrast, NHERF1 abundance increased in the brush border membrane of Pdzk1−/− mice fed a high-Pi diet. Acute regulation of NaPi-IIa by PTH in vivo and by PTH and activators of protein kinases A, C and G (PKA, PKC and PKG) in vitro (kidney slice preparation) was not altered in Pdzk1−/− mice. In conclusion, loss of PDZK1 did not result in major changes in proximal tubule function or NaPi-IIa regulation. However, under a Pi-rich diet, loss of PDZK1 reduced NaPi-IIa abundance indicating that PDZK1 may play a role in the trafficking or stability of NaPi-IIa under these condition

The phosphate transporter NaPi-IIa determines the rapid renal adaptation to dietary phosphate intake in mouse irrespective of persistently high FGF23 levels

Renal reabsorption of inorganic phosphate (Pi) is mediated by the phosphate transporters NaPi-IIa, NaPi-IIc, and Pit-2 in the proximal tubule brush border membrane (BBM). Dietary Pi intake regulates these transporters; however, the contribution of the specific isoforms to the rapid and slow phase is not fully clarified. Moreover, the regulation of PTH and FGF23, two major phosphaturic hormones, during the adaptive phase has not been correlated. C57/BL6 and NaPi-IIa−/− mice received 5days either 1.2% (HPD) or 0.1% (LPD) Pi-containing diets. Thereafter, some mice were acutely switched to LPD or HPD. Plasma Pi concentrations were similar under chronic diets, but lower when mice were acutely switched to LPD. Urinary Pi excretion was similar in C57/BL6 and NaPi-IIa−/− mice under HPD. During chronic LPD, NaPi-IIa−/− mice lost phosphate in urine compensated by higher intestinal Pi absorption. During the acute HPD-to-LPD switch, NaPi-IIa−/− mice exhibited a delayed decrease in urinary Pi excretion. PTH was acutely regulated by low dietary Pi intake. FGF23 did not respond to low Pi intake within 8h whereas the phospho-adaptator protein FRS2α necessary for FGF-receptor cell signaling was downregulated. BBM Pi transport activity and NaPi-IIa but not NaPi-IIc and Pit-2 abundance acutely adapted to diets in C57/BL6 mice. In NaPi-IIa−/−, Pi transport activity was low and did not adapt. Thus, NaPi-IIa mediates the fast adaptation to Pi intake and is upregulated during the adaptation to low Pi despite persistently high FGF23 levels. The sensitivity to FGF23 may be regulated by adapting FRS2α abundance and phosphorylatio

Dysregulation of the glutamine transporter Slc38a3 (SNAT3) and ammoniagenic enzymes in obese, glucose-intolerant mice

BACKGROUND/AIMS Uric acid nephrolithiasis is prevalent among patients with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome; it is correlated with an acidic urine and lower urinary ammonium excretion and is likely associated with insulin resistance. Insulin stimulates ammoniagenesis in renal cell lines via increased phosphate-dependent glutaminase (PDG) activity and glutamine metabolism. Ammonium excretion into the proximal tubule is mediated at least in part by the Na(+)/H(+)-exchanger NHE3 and in the collecting duct involving the Rhesus protein RhCG. Here we tested, whether obesity and insulin resistance in a diet-induced mouse model could contribute to deranged ammonium excretion. METHODS Obesity was induced by diet in mice and the impact on key molecules of proximal tubular ammoniagenesis and urinary acid excretion tested. RESULTS Diet-induced obesity was confirmed by pathological intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests (IPGTT). Three groups of mice were compared: control mice; obese, glucose-intolerant with abnormal IPGTT (O-GI); or moderate weight with normal IPGTT (Non-Responders, NR). Basal urinary ammonium excretion did not differ among groups. However, acid loading increased urinary ammonium excretion in all groups, but to a lesser extent in the O-GI group. SNAT3 mRNA expression was enhanced in both obese groups. PDG expression was elevated only in acid-loaded O-GI mice, whereas PEPCK was enhanced in both O-GI and NR groups given NH4CI. NHE activity in the brush border membrane of the proximal tubule was strongly reduced in the O-GI group whereas RhCG expression was similar. CONCLUSION In sum, obesity and glucose intolerance impairs renal ammonium excretion in response to NH4CI feeding most likely through reduced NHE activity. The stimulation of SNAT3 and ammoniagenic enzyme expression may be compensatory but futile

Dysregulation of the Glutamine Transporter Slc38a3 (SNAT3) and Ammoniagenic Enzymes in Obese, Glucose-Intolerant Mice

Background/Aims: Uric acid nephrolithiasis is prevalent among patients with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome; it is correlated with an acidic urine and lower urinary ammonium excretion and is likely associated with insulin resistance. Insulin stimulates ammoniagenesis in renal cell lines via increased phosphate-dependent glutaminase (PDG) activity and glutamine metabolism. Ammonium excretion into the proximal tubule is mediated at least in part by the Na+/H+-exchanger NHE3 and in the collecting duct involving the Rhesus protein RhCG. Here we tested, whether obesity and insulin resistance in a diet-induced mouse model could contribute to deranged ammonium excretion. Methods: Obesity was induced by diet in mice and the impact on key molecules of proximal tubular ammoniagenesis and urinary acid excretion tested. Results: Diet-induced obesity was confirmed by pathological intraperitoneal glucose tolerance tests (IPGTT). Three groups of mice were compared: control mice; obese, glucose-intolerant with abnormal IPGTT (O-GI); or moderate weight with normal IPGTT (Non-Responders, NR). Basal urinary ammonium excretion did not differ among groups. However, acid loading increased urinary ammonium excretion in all groups, but to a lesser extent in the O-GI group. SNAT3 mRNA expression was enhanced in both obese groups. PDG expression was elevated only in acid-loaded O-GI mice, whereas PEPCK was enhanced in both O-GI and NR groups given NH4CI. NHE activity in the brush border membrane of the proximal tubule was strongly reduced in the O-GI group whereas RhCG expression was similar. Conclusion: In sum, obesity and glucose intolerance impairs renal ammonium excretion in response to NH4CI feeding most likely through reduced NHE activity. The stimulation of SNAT3 and ammoniagenic enzyme expression may be compensatory but futile