13 research outputs found

    Ethiopian Youth in Agriculture: Relative Deprivation, Well-being and Occupational Choices

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    Africa has the highest share of young people in the world relative to the total population, with the median age of the population under 25 years old, which is not expected to change in the coming decades. This high proportion of young people, combined with other factors, has prompted a sharp rise in youth unemployment in many Sub-Saharan African countries, including Ethiopia, with implications for Africa’s social and economic future. This thesis examines the current dynamics of youth employment, occupational choices, and factors driving these dynamics within the agricultural sector in Ethiopia across space, time, and gender. Using gender and age specific values of agricultural labor return from farm-level panel data collected from a sample of youth and households, the second chapter econometrically investigates the effect of marginal products of labor (or shadow wages) on youth agricultural labor supply across gender and farm locations. I show that changes in economic incentives (or shadow wages) matter for youth’s involvement in agriculture, but their impact differs for young men and women. Relative concerns are one mechanism through which income or wealth inequality is hypothesized to affect human behaviour, with consequences on well-being. Employing survey experimental methods and a socio-demographic survey, the third chapter finds that positional concerns for income vary across household members (youth, mothers and fathers) impacting on the youth’s well-being. Chapter four extends the analysis of relative concerns from income per se to consider social as well as assets (non-monetary) RD, using objective and subjective measures. The evidence suggests that while income RD has a motivational impact (resulting from a “positive externality”), assets, and social capital RD have deterrent impacts (resulting from a “status effect”) on the well-being of youth, though this varies across young men and women. The thesis also aids understanding of the implications of different forms of RD by examining their interactions with both the underlying drivers of occupational choices of young people and the occupational choices themselves. Using different estimation techniques, chapter five finds that RD is a strong predictor of occupational choices of the rural youth and their engagement in agriculture (irrespective of the RD and occupational choice indicators employed), together with an influence of the preferences and attributes of the parents.Afrika hat weltweit den höchsten Anteil junger Leute an der Gesamtbevölkerung; der Altersme dian der Gesamtbevölkerung liegt bei unter 25 Jahren . An diesem Trend dĂŒrfte sich laut aktuellen Prognosen auch in den nĂ€chsten Jahrzehnten nichts Ă€ndern. Dieser hohe Anteil an jungen Leuten hat , zusammen mit anderen Faktoren, zu einem starken Anstieg der Jugendarbeitslosigkeit in zahlreichen LĂ€ndern sĂŒdlich der Sahara, so auch in Äthiopien, gefĂŒhrt – mit Folgen fĂŒr Afrikas soziale und ökonomische Zukunft. Diese Arbeit untersucht die aktuelle Dynamik in der BeschĂ€ftigungssituation der Jugend, ihre Berufswa hl sowie die Treiber und Bedeutung dieser Entwicklung fĂŒr die Landwirtschaft in Äthiopien, und zwar im Hinblick auf Raum, Zeit und Geschlecht. Das zweite Kapitel untersucht ökonometrisch die Auswirkungen von Grenzprodukten der Arbeit (Schattenlöhnen) auf das Arbeitsangebot junger Menschen in der Landwirtschaft, und zwar unter BerĂŒcksichtigung von Geschlecht, Zeit und des Orts der einzelnen Bauernhöfe. Dabei legen wir geschlechts - und altersspezifische Werte des Ertrags landwirtschaftlicher Arbeit (Schatte nlöhne) zugrunde, die aus einer Panelerhebung unter Jugendlichen und Haushalten auf Bauernhof - Ebene im lĂ€ndlichen Äthiopien stammen. Die Ergebnisse, die wir mit der Fixen - Effekte - Methode und der InstrumentvariablenschĂ€tzung (IV - SchĂ€tzung) mit fixen Effekte n ermittelt haben, zeigen, dass VerĂ€nderungen bei ökonomischen Anreizen – wie sie Schattenlöhne darstellen – bei der Beteiligung Jugendlicher in der Landwirtschaft durchaus eine Rolle spielen. Dabei gibt es jedoch Unterschiede zwischen jungen MĂ€nnern und j ungen Frauen. Die Ergebnisse legen Folgendes nahe: Wenn die Landwirtschaft fĂŒr die Jugend attraktiver werden soll, mĂŒssen ArbeitsproduktivitĂ€t und Arbeitsmöglichkeiten gefördert werden. Zudem ist eine strukturelle Transformation vonnöten, um die UnzulĂ€ngli chkeiten und Starre des Arbeitsmarktes und anderer MĂ€rkte aufzubrechen. JĂŒngere empirische Studien zeigen, dass Menschen aufgrund einer Sorge um ihre eigene Stellung in der Gesellschaft aktiv werden. Aktuelle theoretische Arbeiten fĂŒhren aus, dass der Erk lĂ€rungsanteil in ökonometrischen Analysen grĂ¶ĂŸer wird, wenn wir uns jenseits gĂ€ngiger (rationaler) Entscheidungsmodelle bewegen und auch Relativinteressen berĂŒcksichtigen. Bezieht man relative Deprivation – also Entbehrungen – in die Berufswahl von Jugendl ichen mit ein, erhĂ€lt man einen zusĂ€tzlichen ErklĂ€rungsanteil – wenn nicht gar einen alternativen ErklĂ€rungsansatz, um die Entscheidungen fĂŒr die Berufswahl von Jugendlichen im lĂ€ndlichen Äthiopien sowie die Ursachen der lĂ€ndlichen Unterentwicklung in Äthi opien zu verstehen. Es wird angenommen, dass relative Einkommensinteressen (oder die Position betreffende Einkommensinteressen) bei Einkommens - oder Wohlstandsungleichheit das menschliche Verhalten beeinflussen – mit allen Folgen fĂŒr das Wohlbefinden der I ndividuen. Kapitel 3 arbeitet mit einer soziodemografischen Umfrage sowie mit umfrage - experimentellen Methoden heraus, dass sich die Sorge um die eigene Stellung bezĂŒglich des Einkommens unter den Haushaltsmitgliedern (Jugendliche, MĂŒtter, VĂ€ter) untersche idet, was sich auf das Wohlergehen der Kinder auswirkt. Kapitel 4 weitet die Analyse der relativen Interessen vom reinen Einkommensbezug aus auf Aspekte sozialer Entbehrung sowie auf nicht - monetĂ€re Faktoren (vermögensbezogene Deprivation), wobei objektive und subjektive Maße relativer Deprivation eingesetzt werden. Die Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass einkommensbezogene Deprivation einen motivierenden Einfluss hat (der von "positiven Außeneffekten" oder "Signaleffekten" herrĂŒhrt). DemgegenĂŒber wirken sich Entbeh rungen, die das Vermögen oder das soziale Kapital betreffen (und sich aus dem Statuseffekt ergeben), eher negativ auf das Wohlbefinden der Jugend aus; dabei fallen die Aussagen nach Geschlecht unterschiedlich aus. Ein Kanal, ĂŒber den sich relative Entbehru ngen im menschlichen Verhalten ausdrĂŒcken, sind menschliche Entscheidungen, zum Beispiel die Berufswahl betreffend. Das Hauptziel dieser Arbeit ist es schließlich, die Auswirkungen unterschiedlicher Formen relativer Deprivation zu verstehen, indem deren We chselwirkungen untersucht werden – und zwar sowohl jene mit den Treibern, die der Berufswahl junger Leute zugrunde liegen, als auch solche mit den Berufswahlmöglichkeiten und Entscheidungen selbst. Kapitel 5 bezieht die tatsĂ€chlichen Berufe in die Analyse ein. Dabei stellt sich heraus, dass die relative Deprivation ein starker PrĂ€diktor fĂŒr die Berufswahl sowie das Engagement in der Landwirtschaft der lĂ€ndlichen Jugend ist – und zwar unabhĂ€ngig davon, welche Indikatoren relativer Deprivation und Berufswahl angewendet werden. Dabei ist ein Einfluss der PrĂ€ferenzen und Merkmale der Eltern zu verzeichnen. Diese Arbeit kommt zu dem Schluss, dass die BeschrĂ€nkung relativer Deprivation auf die monetĂ€re Ebene in die Irre fĂŒhren kann. Wer dies tut, erfasst nicht die tatsĂ€chlichen Effekte, die relative Entbehrungen auf das Wohlbefinden, die Berufswahl oder auch auf Arbeitsmarktanalysen haben. Außerdem deckt die Verwendung multipler Referenzgruppen und unterschiedlicher Messmethoden bezĂŒglich des relativen Status mögli che Interventionsfelder auf, um positive externe Effekte zu verstĂ€rken. Dies ist mit konventionellen ForschungsansĂ€tzen nicht möglich. Zuletzt macht diese Arbeit deutlich, dass die gleichzeitige und kritische BerĂŒcksichtigung vĂ€terlicher und mĂŒtterlicher A ttribute die Wirkung einiger wichtiger Variablen beeinflusst – und dass die Indikatoren tatsĂ€chlichen und geplanten Engagements in der Landwirtschaft stark variieren. Studien, die derartige Daten fĂŒr die Analyse arbeitsmarkt - oder migrationspolitischer Ents cheidungen verwenden, sollten diese Variationen und EinflĂŒsse berĂŒcksichtigen

    Urbanisation and rural development in sub-Saharan Africa: A review of pathways and impacts

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    This paper reviews the current state of literature on the impacts of urbanisation on rural development in the context of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with special emphasis to the pathways through which urbanisation affect rural economic development. Assessments of these effects diverge greatly. While some authors see urbanisation as strongly benefitting rural areas, for instance, through increased demand for agricultural goods and services, others highlight negative effects, for example, through the loss of livelihoods emanating from displacements and the conversion of agricultural land that may lead to urban sprawl. Given this complexity, a review that thoroughly analyses the causal relationships between urbanisation and rural development is warranted. To do this, the paper identifies seven pathways through which urbanisation affects rural development both positively and negatively: i) production and consumption linkages; ii) employment linkages; iii) financial linkages; iv) land market linkages; v) information and knowledge linkages; vi) social interactions linkages; and vii) environmental externalities linkages. The study suggests that recognising the importance of such linkages and incorporating them into the local and national economic policies is crucial for sustainable development. Overall, the review findings indicate that the impact of urbanisation on rural development in SSA is conditional and heterogeneous. It is conditional because countries need to be well-placed to reap the benefits of urbanisation, i.e., they need to have conducive infrastructure and institutional settings, as well as strong political commitment and leadership. When well-managed, however, urbanisation can play a pivotal role in reducing rural poverty, improving food security and creating opportunities for rural transformation. To this end, the review has identified research gaps that have important policy relevance in SSA. Addressing these gaps is imperative to harnessing the economic advantages of rapid urbanisation in a way that supports rural areas and promotes sustainable development

    Urbanisation and rural development in developing countries: A review of pathways and impacts

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    This paper reviews the current state of literature on the impacts of urbanization on rural development in developing countries, with an emphasis on Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It also provides a conceptual framework for linking these phenomena, and identifies research gaps that have important policy implications. In particular, this study identifies the following pathways through which urbanization can impact rural (economic) development: Production and consumption linkages, labor/employment linkages, financial linkages, land market linkages, linkages with information or public services, linkages with social interaction, and linkages with environmental externalities such as waste/pollution, environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity. To this end, the review has identified the following research gaps. First, although effective rural-urban planning, monitoring and evaluation of rural-urban development policies require better data, there is lack of data collection systems or their quality is poor. In this respect, investing in emerging data sources such as satellites data can help countries improve their data collection systems and measures. Second, research is needed to revise and reformulate better theoretical frameworks that take into account the uniqueness of African urban cities. Third, empirical evidence which documents to what extent and how rural-urban linkages provide an important arena for improving social interactions among neighbors, societies, and communities is needed. Finally, as many African countries continue to experience rapid urbanization (mostly urban sprawl), a thorough study of the impacts of urban externalities on agricultural productivity, food security, biodiversity, and the health of rural communities is necessary

    Urbanisation and social cohesion: Theory and empirical evidence from Africa

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    Africa is currently undergoing the most rapid urbanisation process globally, and this trend is forecast to persist in the coming decades. Many believe that this ongoing rapid urbanisation process is changing the social fabric and reshaping social cohesion. This study explores the theoretical channels through which urbanisation affects social cohesion and provides empirical evidence of their interrelationship. Specifically, the study asks: given the vast social, economic, cultural, political and environmental transformation associated with urbanisation, is there a link between urbanisation and social cohesion? Combining a novel national panel data set on social cohesion from Afrobarometer with urbanisation and other socioeconomic data from world development indicators, the study shows that urbanisation is negatively correlated with the three attributes of social cohesion, namely trust, inclusive identity, and cooperation for the common good. These associations persist even after controlling for country socioeconomic conditions and year fixed effects. Moreover, the magnitude of this association varies across attributes, with trust and inclusive identity showing a higher correlation than cooperation for the common good. Urbanisation-induced change in economic and environmental structure, such as employment, infrastructure, and pollution, are the main channels affecting social cohesion. Overall, the findings underscore the need for inclusive urban development and policies focused on ameliorating social fragmentation resulting from rapid urbanisation unfolding across Africa

    Rural Shadow Wages and Youth Agricultural Labor Supply in Ethiopia: Evidence from Farm Panel Data

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    The majority of the youth in Ethiopia live in rural areas where agriculture is the main source of livelihood. Using gender- and age-specific values of agricultural labor return (shadow wages), we systematically analyse trends, patterns and prospects of youth’s labor supply in agriculture across space (farm locations). We also analyse whether the household male and female youth members’ agricultural labor supply is responsive to economic incentives. We investigate these using shadow wages estimation techniques applied to farm-household panel data collected during the 2010/11 and 2014/15 agricultural seasons. The results indicate that trends and patterns of the youth’s involvement in agriculture vary across gender and farm work locations, and so do their labor returns. Yet the on-farm participation for youth members is declining across time irrespective of gender, whilst their participation in off-farm activities is increasing. The findings also suggest that changes in agricultural shadow wages matter for the youth’s involvement in the sector, but their impact differs for male and female youth. The results are consistent after controlling for individual heterogeneity, sample selection and instrumenting for possible endogeneity. In addition, we find that youth’s intentions and actual engagement in agricultural production vary greatly. This suggests that the frequent narrative of youth disengaging from agriculture may be a result of methodological flaws or data limitations. Taking into account the intensity of the youth’s involvement in family farm, own farm and off-farm work, the results challenge the presumption that youth are abandoning agriculture, at least in agricultural potential areas of Ethiopia. Instead the youth’s involvement makes an important economic contribution to the operation of the family farm. Therefore, it is necessary to invest in agricultural development to enhance productivity and employment opportunities; and structural transformation that addresses the imperfections and rigidities in labor and other input markets to make agriculture more attractive to youth

    Labor-intensive public works programs in sub-Saharan Africa: Experiences and implications for employment policies

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    Public works programs (PWPs) in sub-Saharan African countries have re-emerged as an important policy to stimulate employment generation in addition to their protective role such as consumption smoothening. The paper reviews evidence on the extent to which empirical research can substantiate the claim that labor-intensive PWPs in African countries have important economic benefits. We also refer to the experiences with PWPs in India and China for comparison. We aim to answer the following questions: Do PWPs stimulate job creation and raise earning potentials of beneficiaries? And, how do these programs augment employment generation. Based on our review complemented with secondary data analyses, we conclude that in addition to their role as an effective anti-poverty instrument, labor-intensive PWPs have important roles in mitigating poor labor market outcomes and thus enhance employment creation. Yet we also find that more systematic investigations on short-term implementation outcomes of PWPs are necessary, and – due to externalities that are not captured by short-term assessments at the program level – long-run impacts on employment and development also need more research attention

    Ecosystem tipping points due to variable water availability and cascading effects on food security in Sub‐Saharan Africa

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    The frequency, duration, and magnitude of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, and variation in rainfall onset and cessation periods will continue to increase. Such stress may result in significant shifts in the functioning of ecosystems. As climate change affects the capacity of ecosystems to mitigate the effects of extreme events such as drought and floods, leading to disruptions in water supply and food production, or to the destruction of infrastructure, human well‐being is ultimately impacted. Chief among those impacts are those on the four dimensions of food security: food availability, accessibility, utilization, and stability. An interesting channel of impacts is through the observed and forecasted increase in the variability of water availability. This is said to cause uncertainty in agricultural production resulting in reduced productivity, food insecurity, weak economic growth and the widespread food poverty in Africa today. Due to overreliance on rain‐fed agriculture in Sub‐Saharan Africa, people usually engage in both temporary and permanent migration after consecutive years of bad harvests and reduced incomes from agriculture with migration acting as an adaptation strategy to climatic shocks. Food value chains can be significantly affected, something that the paper identifies as an area that requires further research mainly on the resilience of food value chains to water variability
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