Multifunctional electronic media-traditional media: The Problem of an Adequate Functional Unit A case study of a printed newspaper, an internet newspaper and a TV broadcast

Aim and Background: Electronic media are spreading rapidly and some of the services they offer are similar to traditional media. Frequently, credit is given to electronic media for causing less environmental impact, however, looking at it more closely, little is known about the comparability of the environmental impact of both kinds of media. Main reasons for this lack of knowledge are difficulties in defining an adequate functional unit for a comparison of usually multifunctional media, as well as problems in gathering large amounts of inventory data for complex electronic goods. Objective: Here an LCA case study was conducted for reading or watching the daily news in an online and a printed newspaper as well as on TV. Aim of this study was to find an adequate functional unit as well as to quantify the environmental impact of each of the media, including recommendations for the reduction of their impact. In order to account for the multifunctionality of the investigated media as well as for ISO 14040ff. guidelines for the definition of the functional unit, several functional units were chosen. The selected functional units cover a spectrum of close functional equivalence to an altogether different approach in comparing entire activities. Results: Compared on the basis of an average news item, the internet newspaper causes far more environmental impact than a TV news cast, which, in turn, causes more impact than a cutting of a newspaper. Major contributions to the high environmental impact of the internet newspaper are the manufacturing of the computer as well as operation of the necessary infrastructure for running the internet, in particular operation of the telephone network. Comparing media on the basis of consuming the daily news as a whole leads to less environmental impact for both of the electronic media in relation to a printed newspaper, even if shared amongst several readers. The comparative environmental advantage of the electronic media depends on a set of conditions: 1. No online information is printed. 2. Internet surfing is directed towards specific goals and therefore limited in time. 3. Power consumption is based to a large extent on renewable energy sources. This still holds true for the underlying national electricity mix of Switzerland with a high share of hydropower. A comparison of the average per capita time of watching TV with surfing in the internet and average paper consumption of free and bought print products also shows that most of the environmental impact results from print products. Interpretation: Summarising the previously shown results, different perspectives on media and, with it, different functional units lead-not surprisingly-to different results. Relations between the environmental impact of the three media change between approaches. A final conclusion on a qualitative level is drawn. The first functional unit stands for close functional equivalence, however, itdoes not resemble options of the consumer in real life. The cuttings of a newspaper cannot be bought as such and the consumer is normally not interested in a single news item. The second functional unit is more of a representation of real life choices and is a typical example of a consumer's choice that frequently has to decide between options which are not exactly functionally equivalent. Finally, the last approach, based on entire activities, supports the result of the previous approach. Perspective: The case study has shown that a comparison of multifunctional products or services excludes relevant environmental aspects, if functional equivalence is chosen as the unique reference unit. Thus, it is recommended to apply several approaches in order to do justice to the multifunctionality of the investigated products or services. ISO/TR 14049, with its concept of user acceptance, offers such a possibility to compare products or services which are still considered equivalent by the use

Diskussionsbeitraege zum Thema Arbeit und Umwelt: Tagungsband zur Arbeitstagung des Oeko-Institut e.V. vom 22./23. Maerz 1996 in Essen

Available from Bibliothek des Instituts fuer Weltwirtschaft, ZBW, D-21400 Kiel C 206739 / FIZ - Fachinformationszzentrum Karlsruhe / TIB - Technische InformationsbibliothekSIGLEDEGerman

Trends in element incorporation in hyaline and porcelaneous foraminifera as a function of pCO2

In this study we analyzed the impact of seawater carbonate chemistry on the incorporation of elements in both hyaline and porcelaneous larger benthic foraminifera. We observed a higher incorporation of Zn and Ba when pCO2 increases from 350 to 1200 ppm. Modeling the activity of free ions as a function of pCO2 shows that speciation of some elements (like Zn and Ba) is mainly influenced by the formation of carbonate complexes in seawater. Hence, differences in foraminiferal uptake of these might be related primarily by the speciation of these elements in seawater. We investigated differences in trends in element incorporation between hyaline (perforate) and porcelaneous (imperforate) foraminifera in order to unravel processes involved in element uptake and subsequent foraminiferal calcification. In hyaline foraminifera we observed a correlation of element incorporation of different elements between species, reflected by a general higher incorporation of elements in species with higher Mg content. Between porcelaneous species, inter-element differences are much smaller. Besides these contrasting trends in element incorporation, however, similar trends are observed in element incorporation as a function of seawater carbonate chemistry in both hyaline and porcelaneous species. This suggests similar mechanisms responsible for the transportation of ions to the site of calcification for these groups of foraminifera, although the contribution of these processes might differ across species

Seawater carbonate chemistry and data of element incorporation in hyaline and porcelaneous foraminifera in laboratory experiment

In this study we analyzed the impact of seawater carbonate chemistry on the incorporation of elements in both hyaline and porcelaneous larger benthic foraminifera. We observed a higher incorporation of Zn and Ba when pCO2 increases from 350 to 1200?ppm. Modeling the activity of free ions as a function of pCO2 shows that speciation of some elements (like Zn and Ba) is mainly influenced by the formation of carbonate complexes in seawater. Hence, differences in foraminiferal uptake of these might be related primarily by the speciation of these elements in seawater. We investigated differences in trends in element incorporation between hyaline (perforate) and porcelaneous (imperforate) foraminifera in order to unravel processes involved in element uptake and subsequent foraminiferal calcification. In hyaline foraminifera we observed a correlation of element incorporation of different elements between species, reflected by a general higher incorporation of elements in species with higher Mg content. Between porcelaneous species, inter-element differences are much smaller. Besides these contrasting trends in element incorporation, however, similar trends are observed in element incorporation as a function of seawater carbonate chemistry in both hyaline and porcelaneous species. This suggests similar mechanisms responsible for the transportation of ions to the site of calcification for these groups of foraminifera, although the contribution of these processes might differ across species

Arbeit und Umwelt Diskussionsbeitraege; Tagungsband zur Arbeitstagung des Oeko-Instituts vom 22./23. Maerz 1996 in Essen

Der Band entstand im Ergebnis der Tagung 'Moderne Zeiten: Zur Zukunft von Arbeit und Umwelt' (Essen, 1996). Ausgehend von der im Rahmen der Tagung vorgestellten Studie 'Nachhaltige Energiewirtschaft - Einstieg in die Arbeitswelt von morgen' diskutierten die Teilnehmer, wie Arbeitsplaetze gesichert und die Umwelt geschont werden koennen. Die Beitraege machen deutlich, dass die Macht zur Veraenderung nicht nur beim Staat liegt. Gefragt sind umweltbewusst denkende und handelnde Menschen und Unternehmen gleichermassen. Mit der Gliederung in die Abschnitte: Arbeitsplatz Energiewirtschaft; Arbeitszeit, der Schluessel zur Nachhaltigkeit?; Arbeit und Weltwirtschaft; Arbeit und Produktion macht der Tagungsband zugleich deutlich, wie vielseitig die Diskussion um die Zukunft von Arbeit und Umwelt ist. (IAB)Available from IAB / FIZ - Fachinformationszzentrum Karlsruhe / TIB - Technische InformationsbibliothekSIGLEDEGerman

Impact of salinity on element incorporation in two benthic foraminiferal species with contrasting magnesium contents

Accurate reconstructions of seawater salinity could provide valuable constraints for studying past ocean circulation, the hydrological cycle and sea level change. Controlled growth experiments and field studies have shown the potential of foraminiferal Na = Ca as a direct salinity proxy. Incorporation of minor and trace elements in foraminiferal shell carbonate varies, however, greatly between species and hence extrapolating calibrations to other species needs validation by additional (culturing) studies. Salinity is also known to impact other foraminiferal carbonate-based proxies, such as Mg= Ca for temperature and Sr = Ca for sea water carbonate chemistry. Better constraints on the role of salinity on these proxies will therefore improve their reliability. Using a controlled growth experiment spanning a salinity range of 20 units and analysis of element composition on single chambers using laser ablation-Q-ICP-MS, we show here that Na = Ca correlates positively with salinity in two benthic foraminiferal species (Ammonia tepida and Amphistegina lessonii). The Na = Ca values differ between the two species, with an approximately 2-fold higher Na = Ca in A. lessonii than in A. tepida, coinciding with an offset in their Mg content (∼35 mmol mol-2 versus ∼2.5 mmol mol-1 for A. lessonii and A. tepida, respectively). Despite the offset in average Na = Ca values, the slopes of the Na = Ca-salinity regressions are similar between these two species (0.077 versus 0.064 mmol mol-1 change per salinity unit). In addition, Mg= Ca and Sr = Ca are positively correlated with salinity in cultured A. tepida but show no correlation with salinity for A. lessonii. Electron microprobe mapping of incorporated Na and Mg of the cultured specimens shows that within chamber walls of A. lessonii, Na = Ca and Mg= Ca occur in elevated bands in close proximity to the primary organic lining. Between species, Mg banding is relatively similar, even though Mg content is 10 times lower and that variation within the chamber wall is much less pronounced in A. tepida. In addition, Na banding is much less prominent in this species than it is in A. lessonii. Inter-species differences in element banding reported here are hypothesized to be caused by differences in biomineralization controls responsible for element uptake

Impacts of pH and [CO32-] on the incorporation of Zn in foraminiferal calcite

The trace elemental composition of foraminiferal shell calcite is known to reflect the environment in which the shell was precipitated. Whereas conservative elements incorporated in foraminiferal shell carbonate reflect factors such as temperature (Mg), carbonate chemistry (B) and salinity (Na), the nutrient type elements (Ba, Cd, and possibly Zn) are useful tools to reconstruct biogeochemical cycling and past ocean circulation. Still also nutrient-type elements will be most likely influenced by factors other than their relative concentrations. Culturing benthic foraminifera under controlled carbonate chemistry conditions allows for disentanglement of impacts of different parameters of the carbon system on the elemental composition of foraminiferal calcite. Here we show that zinc incorporation in cultured specimens of the benthic foraminifer Ammonia tepida is correlated to changes in carbonate ion concentration ([CO32−]). By modeling activities of different chemical species of Zn in seawater over a range of [CO32−], we suggest that Zn2+ , rather than other relatively abundant Zn-species (e.g. ZnCO30 and ZnHCO3+) is taken up during biomineralization. Our results suggest that foraminiferal Zn/Ca might be especially useful when combined with other [CO32−] proxies, enabling reconstruction of past seawater element concentrations. Conversely, when the nutrient-type element concentrations are known, incorporation of Zn in foraminiferal shells can be used to reconstruct past sea water carbon speciation

Mn Incorporation in Large Benthic Foraminifera: Differences Between Species and the Impact of pCO2

Element concentrations of calcite precipitated by foraminifera reflect chemical and physical properties of seawater and can therefore be used to reconstruct (paleo-)environmental conditions. Foraminiferal carbonate associated manganese incorporation (expressed here as Mn/Ca) is a potential proxy for seawater oxygenation, although the impacts of other environmental parameters need to be quantified before Mn/Ca can be robustly applied. Here we report the isolated impact of seawater carbonate chemistry on manganese incorporation in the shells of two large symbiont-bearing benthic foraminiferal species. Moreover, we investigated the role of biomineralization on manganese incorporation by using species with contrasting calcification pathways: the hyaline species Amphistegina gibbosa and the porcelaneous species Sorites marginalis. Furthermore, analyzing shells from a wide range of species grown under identical conditions allowed assessment of species-specific Mn incorporation in other foraminiferal species. Our observations show that species specific differences in biomineralization strategies are the dominant factor determining Mn content. Shells from porcelaneous species, with relatively high Mg contents, are generally also enriched in Mn compared to low-Mg/Ca foraminifera. Superimposed on the effect of biomineralization, chemical speciation of elements in seawater as a function of pCO2 also affects their incorporation. Whereas the impact of the carbonate system is limited, the inter-specific differences call for species specific calibrations in order to use Mn uptake as a (paleo-)oxygenation proxy

COMBINED IMPACTS OF OCEAN ACIDIFICATION AND DYSOXIA ON SURVIVAL AND GROWTH OF FOUR AGGLUTINATING FORAMINIFERA

Agglutinated foraminifera create a shell by assembling particles from the sediment and comprise a significant part of the foraminiferal fauna. Despite their high abundance and diversity, their response to environmental perturbations and climate change is relatively poorly studied. Here we present results from a culture experiment with four different species of agglutinating foraminifera incubated in artificial substrate and exposed to different pCO2 conditions, in either dysoxic or oxic settings. We observed species-specific reactions (i.e., reduced or increased chamber formation rates) to dysoxia and/or acidification. While chamber addition and/or survival rates of Miliammina fusca and Trochammina inflata were negatively impacted by either dysoxia or acidification, respectively, Textularia tenuissima and Spiroplectammina biformis had the highest survivorship and chamber addition rates with combined high pCO2 (2000 ppm) and low O2 (0.7 ml/l) conditions. The differential response of these species indicates that not all agglutinating foraminifera are well-adapted to conditions induced by predicted climate change, which may result in a shift in foraminiferal community composition

Seawater carbonate chemistry and survival and growth of four agglutinating foraminifera

Agglutinated foraminifera create a shell by assembling particles from the sediment and comprise a significant part of the foraminiferal fauna. Despite their high abundance and diversity, their response to environmental perturbations and climate change is relatively poorly studied. Here we present results from a culture experiment with four different species of agglutinating foraminifera incubated in artificial substrate and exposed to different pCO2 conditions, in either dysoxic or oxic settings. We observed species-specific reactions (i.e., reduced or increased chamber formation rates) to dysoxia and/or acidification. While chamber addition and/or survival rates of Miliammina fusca and Trochammina inflata were negatively impacted by either dysoxia or acidification, respectively, Textularia tenuissima and Spiroplectammina biformis had the highest survivorship and chamber addition rates with combined high pCO2 (2000 ppm) and low O2 (0.7 ml/l) conditions. The differential response of these species indicates that not all agglutinating foraminifera are well-adapted to conditions induced by predicted climate change, which may result in a shift in foraminiferal community composition