Habitat use of wolves (Canis lupus) in human-dominated landscapes

Volkovi v Sloveniji so severozahodni del dinarsko-balkanske populacije volkov. Njihovo območje razširjenosti v državi je prepleteno z naselji, prometnicami, industrijskimi conami, pašnimi, obdelovalnimi in gozdnimi površinami, zato je obstoj populacije mogoč le ob sobivanju z ljudmi. Za učinkovito upravljanje in varovanje volkov je potrebno tudi poznavanje njihovih ekoloških in vedenjskih značilnosti ter njihovo rabo prostora. V analizo rabe prostora smo vključili rezultate telemetrije, popisov volkov in volčjih legel z izzivanjem oglašanja, analize mest za vzgojo mladičev, zimskega sledenja in genetskih raziskav. S telemetričnimi ovratnicami smo spremljali osem volkov, od tega štiri samce in štiri samice iz tropov Javorniki, Gotenica, Nanos, Vremščica, Rog in Slavnik. V svojih tropih so imeli spremljani volkovi različne vlogeena volkulja je bila še mladičmladi samec in samica sta bila še nereproduktivnaspremljali smo tudi dve vodilni samici in enega vodilnega samcamladega volka in volkuljo pa smo lahko spremljali tudi v obdobju njune mladostne disperzije. Površine teritorijev tropov spremljanih volkov so znašale od 259 do 560 km2 (n = 8). V Sloveniji se volkovi izogibajo fragmentiranih območij in pretežno poseljujejo območja večje gozdnatostiizogibajo se tudi prometnejšim cestam. Izbira prostora, ki omogoča zmanjšanje izpostavljenosti človeku, je ključna za preživetje volkov, še posebej preživetje mladičev. Med leti 2010 in 2018 smo s pomočjo prostovoljcev zabeležili 124 odzivov volkov, od tega 67 odzivov odraslih in 57 mladičev. V času disperzije smo spremljali mlado volkuljo in samca. Slednji je v 98 dneh prehodil vsaj 1176 km in se ustalil v Italiji. S samico iz sosednje alpske populacije volkov je osnoval nov trop. To je prva dokumentirana povezava dinarsko-balkanske in alpske populacije volkov.Wolves in Slovenia represent the northwestern part of the Dinaric-Balkan wolf population. The area is covered with settlements, roads, industrial zones, grazing arable and forest areas, therefore the coexistence with humans is necessary for the existence of the species. For more efficient management and protection of the species, knowledge on the ecological and behavioral characteristics of the wolves space use is necessary. Telemetry, wolf howling, analysis of wolf homesites, winter snowtracking and genetic analyses were included in the research. Eight wolves, four males and four females, that were fitted with telemetric collars and belonged to packs Javorniki, Gotenica, Nanos, Vremščica, Rog and Slavnik were included in the habitat use analysis. They had a variety of different roles in their packs. One of the wolves was a young female pup, the young male and female were still unproductive, two reproductive females and one reproductive male were radio collared. A young female pup and a male wolf were monitored during their short and long distance dispersal. The size of wolf territories in Slovenia ranged from 259 to 560 km2 (n=8). In Slovenia wolves avoid fragmented areas and predominantly inhabit forest, areas with conserved nature and avoid roads, settlements. Choosing a habitat that makes them possible to reduce human exposure is crucial for the survival of wolves, especially pups. Between 2010 and 2018, with the help of volunteers, we recorded 124 wolf responses, of which 67 were adults and 57 pups. Young dispersing wolf traveled at least 1,176 km in 98 days and settled in Italy. With a female from a neighboring Alpine wolf population, he founded a new pack. This was the first documented link between the Dinaric-Balkan and Alpine wolf populations

#The #role of human-related risk in breeding site selection by wolves

Large carnivores can be found in different scenarios of cohabitation with humans. Behavioral adaptations to minimize risk from humans are expected to be exacerbated where large carnivores are most vulnerable, such as at breeding sites. Using wolves as a model species, along with data from 26 study areas across the species´ worldwide range, we performed a meta-analysis to assess the role of humans in breeding site selection by a large carnivore. Some of the patterns previously observed at the local scale can be extrapolated to the entire species range provided that important sources of variation are taken into account. Generally, wolves minimised the risk of exposure at breeding sites by avoiding human-made structures, selecting shelter from vegetation and avoiding agricultural lands. Our results suggest a scaled hierarchical habitat selection process across selection orders by which wolves compensate higher exposure risk to humans within their territories via a stronger selection at breeding sites. Dissimilar patterns between continents suggest that adaptations to cope with human-associated risks are modulated by the history of coexistence and persecution. Although many large carnivores able to persist in human-dominated landscapes do not require large-scale habitat preservation, habitat selection at levels below occupancy and territory should be regarded in management and conservation strategies aiming to preserve these species in such contexts. In this case, we recommend providing shelter from human interference where possible to provide necessary breeding habitat

Citizen science contribution to national wolf population monitoring

Evidence-based management of large carnivores is a crucial step towards their effective conservation. However, monitoring of these populations is demanding and generally requires substantial fieldwork effort. Lately, citizen science has become an increasingly important part of wildlife monitoring, but can that endanger studied species? In this paper, we describe our experiences with recruiting and involving volunteers in annual howling surveys of grey wolf (Canis lupus) population in Slovenia and present the framework about the use of citizens for collecting data. Huge effort of participants in a 7-year-long monitoring at a national scale has yielded a total of 116 wolf vocal responses, including 53 confirmed litters. Annually, between 5 and 12 reproductive packs were detected and an increasing trend in wolf population throughout the study period was observed. Volunteer-based howling surveys proved to be a cost-effective method for detection of reproductive packs on a large spatial scale, offering an insight into wolf population trends across a longer time period and we provide some recommendations for organisation and coordination of surveys. We also discuss ethical issues raised from our experience in using citizen science for this purpose

Long-distance dispersal connects Dinaric-Balkan and Alpine grey wolf (Canis lupus) populations

In the last two centuries, persecution and deforestation caused grey wolf Canis lupus populations in Europe to decline. Recently, their numbers started to recover although most populations still remain isolated from one another. This study presents the first documented evidence of the successful reconnection of the Dinaric-Balkan and the Alpine wolf populations via long distance dispersal and subsequent reproduction. A young male wolf radiocollared in the Dinaric Mountains in July 2011 travelled through Slovenia and Austria to the Italian Alps, where he settled in March 2012. During the 98 days of dispersal period the wolf has travelled a cumulative line distance of 1176 km crossing multiple anthropogenic and natural barriers, and successfully hunting wild prey until he settled 233 km straight line distance from its natal territory. Camera trapping, snow tracking and genetic evidence in the new territory confirmed pairing with a female wolf from the neighboring Alpine population. In the following year the pair has produced a first documented “mixed” litter between wolves from the Dinaric- Balkan and the Alpine wolf populations.This case study demonstrates the potential for the future merging of European wolf populations even in human-dominated landscapes and highlights the importance of transboundary cooperation in wolf research and management

Comparing patterns of human harvest and predation by Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx on European roe deer Capreolus capreolus in a temperate forest

Human harvest is the most important mortality factor for wild ungulates in Europe and can affect several aspects of ungulate biology. There is a growing concern about possible negative side-effects of human harvest. To better understand differences between human and natural mortality we compared the extent, age and sex structure, nutritional condition, spatial and temporal distribution of human harvest and natural predation by the Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx on the European roe deer Capreolus capreolus, the most abundant wild ungulate in Europe. Compared to the human harvest, lynx were less likely to kill fawns and yearlings than adults, and among adult deer lynx were more likely to kill females. Proportion of roe deer with fat-depleted bone marrow was higher among lynx prey than among harvested animals. Average lynx kill rate was estimated to 47.8 roe deer / year and lynx predation was considerably lower than the human harvest in the same area. While human harvest increased with higher roe deer density, lynx predation was similar across the gradient of roe deer densities. Comparison with other countries indicated that differences between human harvest and natural mortality of ungulates vary considerably in different parts of Europe. Variation in hunting practices and, even more importantly, carnivore predation may have an important role in buffering unwanted side-effects of harvest of wild ungulates

The role of human-related risk in breeding site selection by wolves

Large carnivores can be found in different scenarios of cohabitation with humans. Behavioral adaptations to minimize risk from humans are expected to be exacerbated where large carnivores are most vulnerable, such as at breeding sites. Using wolves as a model species, along with data from 26 study areas across the species' worldwide range, we performed a meta-analysis to assess the role of humans in breeding site selection by a large carnivore. Some of the patterns previously observed at the local scale become extrapolatable to the entire species range provided that important sources of variation are taken into account. Generally, wolves minimised the risk of exposure at breeding sites by avoiding human-made structures, selecting shelter from vegetation and avoiding agricultural lands. Our results suggest a scaled hierarchical habitat selection process across selection orders by which wolves compensate higher exposure risk to humans within their territories via a stronger selection at breeding sites. Dissimilar patterns between continents suggest that adaptations to cope with human-associated risks are modulated by the history of coexistence and persecution. Although many large carnivores persisting in human-dominated landscapes do not require large-scale habitat preservation, habitat selection at levels below occupancy and territory should be regarded in management and conservation strategies aiming to preserve these species in such contexts. In this case, we recommend providing shelter from human interference at least in small portions of land in order to fulfill the requirements of the species to locate their breeding sites.We are in debt with all the administrative, logistical and funding support from the Picos de Europa National Park and the Regional Government of Galicia (Spain), the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (SEV-2012-0262), the Government of the Northwest Territories and the University of Northern British Columbia (Canada), the U.S.A. National Park Service, the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, the U.S.A. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service, the Wisconsin Departments of Natural Resources and Transportation, the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, the Government of India, the Regional Government of Maharastra (India), the Progetto Lupo Piemonte (Italy), the European Union, the Slovenian Ministry of Agriculture and Environment (LIFE08/NAT/SLO/000244), and the Mexican Wolf Recovery Program (partnership: USFWS, AGFD, WMAT, USDA Forest Service, and the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services–Wildlife Services, and several participating counties). JVLB was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (JCI-2012-13066). MK was supported by Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS, P4-0059)