Use of amaranth, quinoa, kañiwa and lupine for the development of gluten-free extruded snacks

Amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule) have been cultivated in the Andean region of South America since Pre-Hispanic times. They are regarded as formidable nutritious alternatives due their high content of protein (rich in lysine), dietary fibre and bioactive compounds such as tocopherols, phenolic compounds and folate. Despite this, the academic research conducted on their utilisation for human consumption is relatively low. Conversely, lupine (Lupinus angustifolius) is a well-known legume used for animal feed in most of the Nordic countries. The aim of this research was to incorporate amaranth, quinoa, kañiwa and lupine to corn-based snacks, and study their physical, chemical and sensory properties. A co-rotating twin screw extruder was used to obtain corn-based extrudates containing amaranth, quinoa, kañiwa and lupine. In preliminary studies (incorporation up to 20% of solids), Box-Behnken experimental design with three predictors was used: water content of mixture (WCM, 15-19%), screw speed (SS, 200-500 rpm) and temperature of the die (TEM, 150-170 °C). Subsequent studies were conducted using partial least squares regression (PLSR) and L-partial least squares regression (L-PLSR) with nine predictors: Grain type, grain content (20-50% of solids), temperature of die (140-160 °C), screw speed (200-500 rpm), water content of mixture (WCM, 14-18%) as well as contents of protein, ash, fibre and sum content of main fatty acids of blend. In general, WCM and screw speed had the greatest importance for response variables such as torque and pressure at the die during extrusion, sectional expansion index (SEI), stiffness and water content of extrudate; the content of protein and dietary fibre in the blend was particularly relevant during the extrusion of extrudates containing kañiwa and lupine. Regarding the most expanded extrudates, those containing 20, 35 and 50% amaranth, quinoa or kañiwa presented comparable SEIs and stiffness while those containing above 20% lupine suffered from structural collapse. Extrusion reduced the content of fatty acids and tocopherols in the solids but it had a slight effect on the content of total phenolic compounds and folate. In sensory studies, extrudates with higher contents of amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa were rated less crispy, less crunchy and less adhesive with less hard particles. Temporal analysis showed that with increasing contents of amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa, crispiness and crunchiness became the most dominant attributes during mastication while the dominance of roughness reduced considerably. Porosity and wall thickness, measured by X-ray microtomography, were linked to the perception of crispiness and crunchiness, respectively. In storage, whole extrudates containing 20% amaranth, quinoa or kañiwa and exposed to RH of 76% presented the lowest formation of hexanal compared to milled extrudates exposed to RH of 11%. This study showed that expanded corn-based extrudates containing up to 50% amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa and at most 20% lupine of solids can maintain key mechanical and textural properties as well as added nutritional value. This study applied successfully PLSR and L-PLSR modelling techniques to study the incorporation of amaranth, quinoa, kañiwa and lupine to corn-based snacks. This research has expanded the knowledge linked to the development of gluten-free extrudates with added nutritional value

Use of amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa in extruded corn snacks

Malnutrition is a common problem in Peruvian highlands and in Bolivia. Amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa are pseudocereals cultivated in these areas and regarded as good sources of protein and non-saturated fatty acids. The literature review deals with the nutritional and technological properties of amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa. The aim of this investigation was to: (1) prepare gluten free corn-based extrudates containing amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa (20% of solids), (2) study the effects of independent extrusion variables on the physical properties of the extrudates and (3) evaluate lipid stability during storage by measuring hexanal production. Extrudates were made in 4 separate trials using a small scale co-rotating twin screw extruder. Experiments were performed using Box-Behnken?s experimental design in which independent extrusion variables were water content of mass (15, 17 and 19%), screw speed (200, 350 and 500 rpm) and temperature of the die (150, 160 and 170 °C). Samples were collected and their physical properties were analyzed (sectional expansion index, hardness and water content). Ground and whole extrudate samples were stored in open headspace vials at 11 and 76% RH for a week (exposure time) before being sealed and stored for 0, 2, 5 and 9 weeks at room temperature in the absence of light. Hexanal content was analyzed using headspace gas chromatography. The highest sectional expansion index (SEI) and the lowest hardness were achieved when the water content of mass was 15%, screw speed 500 rpm and temperature of the die 160 °C. Extrudates containing amaranth had the highest SEI (7.6) while extrudates containing quinoa and kañiwa had SEIs of 6.1 and 5.1, respectively. Pure corn extrudates (reference sample) had the lowest SEI (4.5). Extrudates containing kañiwa and pure corn extrudates presented the lowest (28 N/mm) and highest hardness (89 N/mm), respectively. In storage studies, ground extrudates (except samples containing quinoa) showed comparatively higher hexanal production than whole extrudates exposed to 11 and 76% RH. Whole extrudates exposed to 76% RH showed very low hexanal production during storage. This study proved that it was possible to add amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa to extruded corn snacks and achieve higher expansion than that of pure corn extrudates. Indeed, the results obtained from the evaluation of lipid oxidation during storage suggest a remarkable stability of whole extrudates after being exposed to high relative humidity. Further studies on lipid stability for longer storage would be highly desirable

Application of NIR imaging to the study of expanded snacks containing amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa

Amaranth (Amarantus caudatus), quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and kañiwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule) are Andean grains that are gaining interest as nutritious gluten-free alternatives to conventional cereals. Near infrared (NIR) imaging was applied to extrudates containing 20, 35% and 50% amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa in order to study the spatial distribution of fibre and protein along the cross-sectional area. The results were contrasted with existing physical measurements (e.g., sectional expansion, stiffness) and textural data obtained from sensory profiling and temporal studies (i.e., temporal dominance of sensation, TDS). Score distribution in PCA plots was directly associated to fibre (PC1) and protein (PC2) due to spectral wavelength specificity (fibre: 1028 nm; protein: 1470 nm). Partial Least Squares regression model (PLS) showed that evenly distributed protein structures are strongly linked to desirable TDS textural properties such as crispiness and crunchiness, while protein clumps were linked to undesirable properties such as roughness. In contrast, fibre was found to reduce roughness. PLS could not explain accurately changes in physical attributes, and sensory data from profiling tests had to be omitted from computing due to lack of fit. This study shows that NIR hyperspectra imaging could help elucidate the chemical background of physical and particularly temporal dominant attributes.Peer reviewe

Oxidative and physical stability of oil-in-water emulsions prepared with quinoa and amaranth proteins

Interactions of food proteins and lipids under oxidative conditions may lead to alterations in food texture as well as loss of nutritional and sensory quality. Oxidative and physical stability of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized with water-soluble proteins extracted from quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus) was monitored in an oxidation study at 30 A degrees C for 7 days. Alkaline extraction of proteins from the flours followed by acid precipitation and freeze-drying was conducted and purified rapeseed oil was used to prepare emulsions via high-pressure microfluidizer. Protein-stabilized emulsions showed lower physical and oxidative stability compared to Tween(A (R)) 20-stabilized emulsions. Lipid oxidation volatile profiles of protein-stabilized emulsions indicated advanced oxidation. Comparison with the physically more stable emulsions stored at 6 A degrees C pointed to the role of co-oxidation between proteins and lipids in coalescence of oil droplets and increase in droplet size. Emulsions stabilized with amaranth proteins showed higher resistance to oxidation compared to quinoa protein containing emulsions.Peer reviewe

Hormonal Regulation in Different Varieties of Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Exposed to Short Acute UV-B Irradiation

Increased ultraviolet-B (UV-B) due to global change can affect plant development and metabolism. Quinoa tolerates extreme conditions including high UV levels. However, the physiological mechanisms behind its abiotic stress tolerance are unclear, especially those related to UV-B. We previously demonstrated that 9.12 kJ m−2 d−1 may induce UV-B-specific signaling while 18.24 kJ m−2 d−1 promotes a UV-B-independent response. Here, we explored the effects of these UV-B doses on hormonal regulation linked to plant morphology and defense among diverse varieties. Changes in fluorescence parameters of photosystem II, flavonoids and hormones (indoleacetic acid (IAA), jasmonic acid (JA), abscisic acid (ABA) and salicylic acid (SA)) were surveyed under controlled conditions. Here, we showed that the sensitivity to short acute UV-B doses in varieties from different habitats is influenced by their parental lines and breeding time. UV-B sensitivity does not necessarily correlate with quinoa’s geographical distribution. The role of flavonoids in the UV-B response seems to be different depending on varieties. Moreover, we found that the extent of changes in JA and SA correlate with UV-B tolerance, while the increase of ABA was mainly related to UV-B stress.Peer reviewe

Hormonal Regulation in Different Varieties of Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Exposed to Short Acute UV-B Irradiation

Increased ultraviolet-B (UV-B) due to global change can affect plant development and metabolism. Quinoa tolerates extreme conditions including high UV levels. However, the physiological mechanisms behind its abiotic stress tolerance are unclear, especially those related to UV-B. We previously demonstrated that 9.12 kJ m−2 d−1 may induce UV-B-specific signaling while 18.24 kJ m−2 d−1 promotes a UV-B-independent response. Here, we explored the effects of these UV-B doses on hormonal regulation linked to plant morphology and defense among diverse varieties. Changes in fluorescence parameters of photosystem II, flavonoids and hormones (indoleacetic acid (IAA), jasmonic acid (JA), abscisic acid (ABA) and salicylic acid (SA)) were surveyed under controlled conditions. Here, we showed that the sensitivity to short acute UV-B doses in varieties from different habitats is influenced by their parental lines and breeding time. UV-B sensitivity does not necessarily correlate with quinoa’s geographical distribution. The role of flavonoids in the UV-B response seems to be different depending on varieties. Moreover, we found that the extent of changes in JA and SA correlate with UV-B tolerance, while the increase of ABA was mainly related to UV-B stress

Hormonal Regulation in Different Varieties of Chenopodium quinoa Willd. Exposed to Short Acute UV-B Irradiation

Increased ultraviolet-B (UV-B) due to global change can affect plant development and metabolism. Quinoa tolerates extreme conditions including high UV levels. However, the physiological mechanisms behind its abiotic stress tolerance are unclear, especially those related to UV-B. We previously demonstrated that 9.12 kJ m−2 d−1 may induce UV-B-specific signaling while 18.24 kJ m−2 d−1 promotes a UV-B-independent response. Here, we explored the effects of these UV-B doses on hormonal regulation linked to plant morphology and defense among diverse varieties. Changes in fluorescence parameters of photosystem II, flavonoids and hormones (indoleacetic acid (IAA), jasmonic acid (JA), abscisic acid (ABA) and salicylic acid (SA)) were surveyed under controlled conditions. Here, we showed that the sensitivity to short acute UV-B doses in varieties from different habitats is influenced by their parental lines and breeding time. UV-B sensitivity does not necessarily correlate with quinoa’s geographical distribution. The role of flavonoids in the UV-B response seems to be different depending on varieties. Moreover, we found that the extent of changes in JA and SA correlate with UV-B tolerance, while the increase of ABA was mainly related to UV-B stress

Comparative study of mycotoxin occurrence in Andean and cereal grains cultivated in South America and North Europe

The consumption of high-quality Andean grains (a.k.a. pseudocereals) is increasing worldwide, and yet very little is known about the susceptibility of these crops to mycotoxin contamination. In this survey study, a multi-analyte liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method was utilised to determine mycotoxin and fungal metabolite levels in Andean grains (quinoa and kañiwa) in comparison to cereal grains (barley, oats and wheat), cultivated in both South American (Bolivia and Peru) and North European (Denmark, Finland and Latvia) countries. A total of 101 analytes were detected at varying levels, primarily produced by Penicillium spp., Fusarium spp. and Aspergillus spp., depending on the type of crop, geographical location and agricultural practices used. Generally, Andean grains from South America showed lower mycotoxin contamination (concentration and assortment) than those from North Europe, while the opposite occurred with cereal grains. Mycotoxin contamination profiles exhibited marked differences between Andean and cereal grains, even when harvested from the same regions, highlighting the need for crop-specific approaches for mycotoxin risk mitigation. Lastly, the efficacy of grain cleaning in respect to total mycotoxin content was assessed, which resulted in significantly lower levels (overall reduction approx. 50%) in cleaned samples for the majority of contaminants.Peer reviewe