Bergmann's rule is maintained during a rapid range expansion in a damselfly

<p>Climate-induced range shifts result in the movement of a sample of genotypes from source populations to new regions. The phenotypic consequences of those shifts depend upon the sample characteristics of the dispersive genotypes, which may act to either constrain or promote phenotypic divergence, and the degree to which plasticity influences the genotype–environment interaction. We sampled populations of the damselfly Erythromma viridulum from northern Europe to quantify the phenotypic (latitude–body size relationship based on seven morphological traits) and genetic (variation at microsatellite loci) patterns that occur during a range expansion itself. We find a weak spatial genetic structure that is indicative of high gene flow during a rapid range expansion. Despite the potentially homogenizing effect of high gene flow, however, there is extensive phenotypic variation among samples along the invasion route that manifests as a strong, positive correlation between latitude and body size consistent with Bergmann's rule. This positive correlation cannot be explained by variation in the length of larval development (voltinism). While the adaptive significance of latitudinal variation in body size remains obscure, geographical patterns in body size in odonates are apparently underpinned by phenotypic plasticity and this permits a response to one or more environmental correlates of latitude during a range expansion.</p

spectra

Relative spectral reflectance of used colours (maximum reflectance = 1, maximum illumination = 1). nm = wavelenght, hue30=orange, used only in the nest cage, hue35=used both in flight arena and nest cage (quinine in the flight arena, the difficult learning task), hue43=yellow, used both in flight arena and nest cage (sugar solution in the flight arena, the rewarding flower), flightarenablue=used both in flight arena and nest cage (quinine in the flight arena, the easy learning task), nestcageblue= blue, used only in the nest cage, floor=floor reflectance, illumination=illumination spectra, relative values (highest value=1)

Dataset with the whole foraging sequence (multiple values per bumblebee)

The whole foraging sequence of bumblebees exposed to 1 ppb imidacloprid in sugar solution and none in pollen. Rawdata was collected via a robotic flower system (Kuusela & Lämsä 2016) and was collapsed into a CSV file to allow easy import to statistical software, such as R. The dataset can be used to analyse i.e. difference in learning rates

Phenology determines seasonal variation in ectoparasite loads in a natural insect population

<p>1. The extent to which individuals are parasitised is a function of exposure to parasites and the immune response, which in ectotherms may be associated with temperature.</p> <p>2. We test the hypothesis that seasonal variation in ectoparasite burden is driven by temperature using an extensive mark-release-recapture study of adult Coenagrion puella (L.) (Zygoptera) as a model system. Mite counts were taken both at capture and on a subset of subsequent recaptures over two entire, consecutive breeding seasons.</p> <p>3. Emergence date was the most significant factor in determining individual differences in mite burden, and mean counts for individuals emerging on the same days showed strong unimodal relationships with time of season. Subsequent recounting of mites on a subset of individuals showed that patterns of loss of mites were similar between seasons.</p> <p>4. While temperature did not significantly affect mite burdens within seasons and ectoparasite prevalence was very similar across the two seasons, intensity of infection and rate of mite gain in unparasitised individuals were significantly higher in the cooler season.</p> <p>5. We demonstrate that, while temperature may modulate the invertebrate immune response, this modulation does not manifest in variations in mite burdens in natural populations.</p

Breeding data associated with microsatellite allele length

Data are records of all attempted breedings of bank voles, and information about microsatellite allele length at two loci (Avpr1a and oxtr), and also information about litter size

Empirical evidence of senescence in adult damselflies (Odonata: Zygoptera)

<p>1. Age-dependent increases in mortality have been documented in a variety of species of insect under laboratory conditions. However, while strong statistical evidence has been presented for senescence in vertebrate populations in the wild, we know little about the rate and shape of senescence in wild populations of insects.</p> <p>2. Odonates (damselflies and dragonflies) provide excellent candidate species for evaluating demographic senescence as they are large enough to be marked individually and they are easily re-sighted without recapture. The prevailing opinion – based entirely on qualitative examination of the declines in log numbers alive with time since marking – is that odonates exhibit age-independent daily survivorship.</p> <p>3. Here, we examine mark–recapture data on the Azure Damselfly Coenagrion puella over two consecutive seasons. For the first time, we evaluate and compare the fit of quantitative models that not only account for weather-dependent daily variation in daily re-sighting rates, but also age-dependent variation in daily survivorship.</p> <p>4. Models with age-dependent declines in daily survivorship provide a more parsimonious explanation for the data than similar models without these age-dependent effects. In general, models in which mortality increases in an exponential (Gompertz) fashion explain the mark–recapture sequences more efficiently than a range of alternative models, including those in which mortality increases as a power function (Weibull) or reaches a plateau (logistic). These results are indicative of a general senescent decline in physiological functioning, which is particularly marked after 15 days as a mature adult.</p> <p>5. Weather (temperature, sun and precipitation) and initial mite load influenced the probability of daily re-sighting. Weather and mite load also influenced daily survivorship, but their effects differed between seasons.</p> <p>6. Overall, fitting models with age as an explicit covariate demonstrates that odonates do indeed senesce. This contradicts previously held assumptions that Odonata do not exhibit age-dependent survivorship in the wild.</p

Additional file 6: Figure S2. of Genetic structure and gene flow of the flea Xenopsylla cheopis in Madagascar and Mayotte

Raw results obtained for the seven scenarios tested using DIYABC software. (a) Posterior probabilities of scenarios obtained through a logistic regression computed every 10% (between 10 and 100%) of the number of selected datasets. (b) PCA plot allowing to visualize how close datasets simulated (each small dot) under each scenario (different colors) are from the observed dataset (large yellow dot). The most relevant scenario chosen was scenario 6. The probabilities for each scenario using direct and logistic approaches are given. (PDF 786 kb

Additional file 4: Table S2. of Genetic structure and gene flow of the flea Xenopsylla cheopis in Madagascar and Mayotte

Pairwise F ST and values between all populations. Table S3. Pairwise F ST ENA values among populations. (XLSX 12 kb

Additional file 1: of Genetic structure and gene flow of the flea Xenopsylla cheopis in Madagascar and Mayotte

Protocol describing microsatellite primers development (partial genomic libraries enrichment). (DOCX 19 kb

Additional file 3: Figure S1. of Genetic structure and gene flow of the flea Xenopsylla cheopis in Madagascar and Mayotte

Identification of the number of genetic clusters using the methods of Pritchard & Evanno [43, 46]. (a) Posterior probability L(K) and (b) DeltaK obtained based on K numbers of genetic populations ranging from 1 to 10. (PDF 52 kb