Global trend of Methicillin-resistant Staphlococcus aureus and emerging challenges for control

Background: Following its first recognition in early 1960s, the increasing incidence of nosocomial and community-acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections has become a global problem. The emergence of multiple-drug resistant MRSA strains and dissemination of epidemic antibiotic clones including presence of wide spectrum of virulence and predisposing risk factors complicate diagnosis, chemotherapy and control causing significant morbidity and mortality. Detection of MRSA strains in domestic animals and protozoan has widened the epidemiologic characters of the organism and may influence infection control policies. Objectives: To review the emergence and epidemiologic spread of resistant strains of MRSA, molecular/genetic basis of resistance in the organism and challenges facing control strategies worldwide. It also aims to suggest intervention strategies so as to checkmate the spread of MRSA infections.Methods: By reviewing local and international literatures on MRSA infections coupled with practical experience in the field of this endeavour. Result/Conclusion: MRSA has shown increasing endemic and epidemic spread in the last four decades causing serious medical and socio-economic difficulties. Routine and regular surveillance (uncommon in poor-resourced developing areas of especially sub-Saharan Africa), good hospital practices and personal hygiene, public enlightenment, development of effective therapeutic agents and rational administration of antibiotics based on reliable test results will limit the spread of MRSA infections.Key words: MRSA, incidence, morbidity, mortality, surveillance, control

Review of Lassa fever, an emerging old world haemorrhagic viral disease in sub-Saharan Africa

Lassa fever is an acute immunosuppressive illness of increasing public health concern causing severe morbidity and significant mortality (Case fatality rate (CFR) ≥ 50%) especially in epidemic cases. Although Lassa fever has emerged (following its first detection (1969) in Lassa town, Nigeria) as one of the most prevalent and debilitating viral haemorrhagic fevers endemic in West Africa region (Nigeria inclusive), yet, the control/prevention of the regular outbreak of the disease has become an herculean task in the areas affected; there is inadequate healthcare facility (including Laboratory/diagnostic and care centres), poor socioeconomic environment, lack of awareness among the populace and presence of favourable ecologic niche for the survival and propagation of the natural host and reservoir mouse (Mastomys natalensis) of Lassa virus . Lassa fever is mainly transmitted by contact with excretions and secretions of infected rats via foods and water as well as exposure to other contaminated items. Lassa virus is a member of an Old World Arenariruses, of family Arenaviridae. It is an enveloped, single-stranded (SS) bisegmented RNA virus with ability to replicate very rapidly. It consists of 4 lineages; 3 members are identified as ancenstral strains found in Nigeria, while the fourth is domiciled in other West Africa Countries. Lassa virus infects almost every tissue in human body resulting in multisystemic dysfunction. The incubation period is generally between 6 to 21 days resulting in 3 stages of clinical manifestation viz: Acute phase characterized by flu-like, non-specific illness; haemorrhagic phase accompanied with gastrointestinal symptoms and cardiovascular/neurologic complications. Currently, there is no clinically certified Lassa fever vaccine thus complicating deterrent or preventive measures. Hence, there is need for intensification of educational programs for the populace on the useful control measures against Lassa fever. The stakeholders need to prioritize intervention and support program and also speed up the processes leading to the production of effective vaccine to limit the menace of Lassa fever outbreak and associated morbidity, fatality and high socio-economic cost.Keywords: Lassa fever, endemic, epidemic, reservoir rodent, West Afric

Emerging and re-emerging infectious agents of nosocomial diseases – The need for review of hospital policy and control strategies

Nosocomial infections (NIs, now referred to as Healthcare-associated infections, HCAIs) are diseases that essentially originate from the hospital and may be disseminated via biologic or inanimate agents in the healthcare center. They occur globally and constitute major hazards inhealthcare institutions resulting in significant morbidity, mortality and increased hospital stay, and high socio-economic cost. Between 3 and 21 percent (average range, 5 – 9%) of all hospitalized patients are affected by HCAIs each year in various communities worldwide; while critically ill,trauma or immunocompromised patients (e.g. those requiring multiple life – saving invasive procedures or immunosuppressive therapy) are hardest hit. The increasing involvement of multiple drug-resistant strains of a large spectrum of emerging and re-emerging infectious agents of NIscomplicate morbidity, management and impose serious burden on the patients and relations. Hospital workers, patients, materials or equipments and hospital procedures constitute major factors of transmission mechanism of HCAIs. However, the incidence and socioeconomic impact ofNIs (though estimated to be high) are rarely investigated in sub-Saharan Africa (including Nigeria) due to poor healthcare facility and low capacity. There is need for increased awareness on HCAIs and adoption of enduring hospital policy and effective control measures that will take cognizanceof emerging trends of nosocomial agents and transmission mechanism to reduce morbidity, mortality and socio-economic impact associated with HCAIs.Keywords: Healthcare – associated infections, hazards, morbidity, mortality, control measures

Emergence of ebola virus disease and its devastating impact in poor-resourced areas of sub-Saharan Africa

Ebola virus disease (EVD) is an unusual infection, and one of the most virulent emerging viral diseases known causing severe morbidity and significant mortality. In recent epidemic outbreak of EVD in West African countries of Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia (the 3 nations epi-centre of the epidemic), the disease has affected over 25,000 people resulting in more than 10,000 deaths, (Case Fatality Rate, CFR>40%; i.e. from December, 2013-March, 2015). Following the first outbreak of EVD in Sudan and Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in 1976, several epidemics (>20 outbreaks) of the disease have been recorded particularly in poor-resourced areas of the East, Central and West-Africa resulting in significant mortality. CFR of EVD is 25-90 percent. Ebola virus is transmitted to humans by wild animals (mainly non-human primates) and spreads in human population via close contact with blood, body fluids and secretions of infected patients. EVD can also be acquired through direct contact with infected corpses. It is characterized (at initial stage) by non-specific flu-like symptoms including headache, fever, myalgia and malaise following incubation period of 2-21 days. This may terminate into severe systemic manifestations including diffuse internal and external bleeding, shock and death if untreated early. Non recognition of the specific natural host of Ebola virus and rapid progression of infection including slow mounting of acquired immunity against EVD by infected host complicate control measures. The socio-economic cost of EVD epidemic outbreak is colossal. Despite notable advances in healthcare-related technology enhancing the diagnosis, treatment / management and prevention / control of infectious or viral diseases, the response of the stakeholders over the years geared toward controlling the spread of the disease left much to be desired. No clinically certified drugs or vaccines against EVD are yet available. There is the urgent need by stakeholders to device appropriate preventive / control measures including development of effective drugs and vaccines to checkmate the spread of EVD and associated severe morbidity, high mortality and devastating socio-economic impact.Key Words: Ebola virus disease, severe morbidity, mortality, socio-economic impact, checkmate

Ifa Divination Trays from Isale-Oyo

This paper is a study of the images and patterns on ifa divination trays from Isale-Oyo. The paper also explains some ifa paraphernalia. The paper establishes that ifa trays from Isale-Oyo bear distinctive features when compared with other ifa trays in Yorubaland such as those of Ijebu and Osogbo. Central to this study is the iconographic description and interpretations of Isale-Oyo divination trays. Data were collected through direct interviews with divination tray owners. Photographs of the trays were also taken. The investigation revealed that: • Divination trays from Isale-Oyo combine features found on both Ijebu and Osogbo trays. • The Esu figure continues to occupy the top central position on Oyo divination trays, even though with representational variations elsewhere in Yorubaland. • Some divination trays in Oyo carry no decorations on their borders, and in some recent cases, ceramic plates are now used for divination.Este artigo trata dos padrões e imagens dos tabuleiros de adivinhação ifa usados em Isale-Oyo (Nigéria), bem como de outros objectos religiosos associados. Argumenta-se que os tabuleiros ifa de Isale-Oyo têm características que os distinguem de outros tabuleiros ifa da região yoruba, como os de Ijebu e Osogbo. A descrição e a interpretação da iconografia dos tabuleiros de adivinhação constituem o foco deste estudo. Os dados discutidos foram recolhidos através de entrevistas a proprietários de tabuleiros de adivinhação e fotografias de tabuleiros. Conclui-se que: • Os tabuleiros de adivinhação de Isale-Oyo combinam traços dos tabuleiros de Ijebu • e dos tabuleiros de Osogbo. • A figura de Esu continua a ocupar a posição central superior nos tabuleiros de adivinhação de Oyo, embora se registem variações na sua representação noutras zonas do território yoruba. • Alguns tabuleiros de adivinhação de Oyo não possuem qualquer decoração nos frisos, e nalguns casos recentes vêm sendo utilizados na adivinhação pratos de cerâmica

Effect of drinking magnetized water on immunity and carcass quality of broiler chicken

This study was conducted to determine the effect of drinking Magnetized Water (MW) on the immunity of broiler chicken. The problem which this study focused on was the mortality rate of broiler chicken which is common in some poultry farms in Nigeria due to some factors that could lead to loss of income. There is a need for economical methods for boosting the immunity of Broiler Chicken (BC) in order to reduce the mortality rate. BC (Arbor Acres breed) was given MW. The magnetized water was produced by passing water through the magnetic field in a pipe. The treatments were MW treated for 33s by passing the water through pipe surrounded with magnets one time(T1), MW treated for 66 s by flowing twice through the magnetic unit (T2), T3 was MW treated for 99 s and control (Non-Magnetized Water, NMW, T0). A total of 80 BCs (day old) with 20 BC for each treatment were given MW (T1, T2 and T3), NMW and monitored for 7 weeks. Blood samples were collected for hematology and analyzed using standard methods. The values of white blood cell for T0, T1, T2 and T3 were 153.61×10-9/L, 133.20×10-9/L, 134.78×10-9/L and 101.12×10-9/L and for lymphocytes, were 137.08×10-9/L, 120.79×10-9/L, 125.49×10-9/L and 96.12×10-9/L, respectively. MW T1, T2 and T3 increased body weight gain of the BC by 410, 320 and 210g/broiler. Protein contents of the carcass for T1, T2, T3 and T0 were 13.13%, 13.23%, 13.18% and 12.80%, respectively. MW can therefore enhance production of healthy broiler chickens