First molecular evidence of <i>Mus musculus bactrianus</i> in Nepal inferred from the mitochondrial DNA <i>cytochrome B</i> gene sequences

<p>To identify the house mice collected in Pokhara and Lumbini of Nepal at the subspecies level, morphological and molecular analyses were carried out. Morphologically, two populations collected in Pokhara and Lumbini were distinguished by fur colour, but there was no significant difference in external measurements (<i>p</i> > .05). The phylogenetic analysis results revealed that the haplotypes sequences of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) <i>Cytochrome B</i> (<i>CytB</i>) gene distinguished into two distinct clades on a phylogenetic tree representing two subspecies, <i>Mus musculus bactrianus</i> and <i>M</i>. <i>m</i>. <i>castaneus</i> in Pokhara and Lumbini, respectively. In Nepal, the subspecies <i>M</i>. <i>m. bactrianus</i> was not reported before this study. These findings concluded that at least two subspecies, <i>M</i>. <i>m</i>. <i>bactrianus</i> and <i>M. m. castaneus</i> currently exist in Nepal. We estimated that these two subspecies could have introduced together with human migration, while further study is required to understand their evolutionary history and current distribution.</p

Spatio-temporal patterns of attacks on human and economic losses from wildlife in Chitwan National Park, Nepal

<div><p>Wildlife attacks on humans and economic losses often result in reduced support of local communities for wildlife conservation. Information on spatial and temporal patterns of such losses in the highly affected areas contribute in designing and implementing effective mitigation measures. We analyzed the loss of humans, livestock and property caused by wildlife during 1998 to 2016, using victim family’s reports to Chitwan National Park authorities and Buffer Zone User Committees. A total of 4,014 incidents were recorded including attacks on humans, livestock depredation, property damage and crop raiding caused by 12 wildlife species. In total >400,000 US dollar was paid to the victim families as a relief over the whole period. Most of the attacks on humans were caused by rhino, sloth bear, tiger, elephant, wild boar and leopard. A significantly higher number of conflict incidents caused by rhino and elephant were observed during full moon periods. An increase in the wildlife population did not coincide with an equal rise in conflict incidents reported. Underprivileged ethnic communities were attacked by wildlife more frequently than expected. Number of attacks on humans by carnivores and herbivores did not differ significantly. An insignificant decreasing trend of wildlife attacks on humans and livestock was observed with significant variation over the years. Tiger and leopard caused >90% of livestock depredation. Tigers killed both large (cattle and buffalo) and medium sized (goat, sheep, pig) livestock but leopard mostly killed medium sized livestock. Most (87%) of the livestock killing during 2012–2016 occurred within the stall but close (<500m) to the forest edge. Both the percentage of households with livestock and average holding has decreased over the years in buffer zone. Decreased forest dependency as well as conflict mitigation measures (electric and mesh wire fences) have contributed to keep the conflict incidents in control. Strengthening mitigation measures like construction of electric or mesh wire fences and predator-proof livestock corrals along with educating local communities about wildlife behavior and timely management of problem animals (man-eater tiger, rage elephant etc.) will contribute to reduce the conflict.</p></div

Spatio-temporal patterns of attacks on human and economic losses from wildlife in Chitwan National Park, Nepal - Fig 6

<p>a) Average number of livestock depredation incident per month and season in buffer zone of Chitwan National Park during 1998–2016, b) Number of livestock killed by tiger and rhino in the distance from forest edge and park boundary.</p

Spatio-temporal patterns of attacks on human and economic losses from wildlife in Chitwan National Park, Nepal - Fig 2

<p>Wildlife attacks on humans, livestock depredation and relief payments over the years in Buffer Zone of Chitwan National Park, Nepal, a) Human death and injury b) livestock depredation caused by tiger and leopard, and its relation with people on foreign employment c) Amount of relief distribution to the victim families with timeline of relief distribution scheme. The numbers in parenthesis is the relief amount per victim of human death provisioned in relief guidelines of Buffer Zone or government, R = Nepalese Rupees, K = thousand.</p

Percentage of households with livestock, average livestock ownership per household and percentage of households grazing their livestock.

<p>Data for 1997 and 2006 obtained from Gurung et al. (2010).</p

Types of loss caused by wildlife in buffer zone of Chitwan National Park.

<p>Number in the parenthesis indicates the frequency of reported cases of the incident caused by the particular wildlife species.</p

Chitwan National Park and buffer zone area, showing the land cover and management sectors.

<p>The labels (1–22) represents the Buffer Zone User Committees (BZUC) and the table (top left) gives the names of respective BZUC.</p

The expected and observed proportion of wildlife attacks on humans of different ethnicity.

<p>The expected and observed proportion of wildlife attacks on humans of different ethnicity.</p

Dependency of livestock depredation victim households on agriculture, livestock and other off-farm activities.

<p>Dependency of livestock depredation victim households on agriculture, livestock and other off-farm activities.</p

Tigers in the Terai: Strong evidence for meta-population dynamics contributing to tiger recovery and conservation in the Terai Arc Landscape - Fig 2

<p>Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) from multiyear camera trap surveys carried out in a) core area of Suklaphanta National Park; b) Babai valley within Bardia National Park.</p