Influence of bird type, dietary fibre and particle size on apparent ileal digestibility of nutrients and energy utilisation : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science in Animal Science at School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Manawatu, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Figures 2.3 & 2.5 removed for copyright reasons. Figure 2.1 reproduced with this permission: "Educational programs of Kentucky Cooperative Extension serve all people regardless of race, color, age, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, M. Scott Smith, Director, Land Grant Programs, University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, Lexington, and Kentucky State University, Frankfort. Copyright © 2013 for materials developed by University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension. This publication may be reproduced in portions or its entirety for educational or nonprofit purposes only."Whilst limited published data are available on the effect of bird type on the nutrients digestibility and the interaction between DF content and bird type on nutrient digestibility, no study has investigated the interaction between dietary particle size and bird type on nutrient digestibility. In the present thesis work, it was hypothesised that the interaction exists in nutrient digestibility responses of different bird types to increased dietary fibre content and particle size, with layers showing better digestion efficiency in high fibre diets and to increased dietary particle size. The objectives of the experimental research presented in this thesis are, 1. To investigate the influence of bird type (broilers, pullets and layers) and DF content (low fibre and high fibre) on apparent ileal nutrient digestibility and energy utilisation; 2. To investigate the influence of bird type (broilers and layers) and maize particle size (fine, medium and coarse) on apparent ileal digestibility of nutrients and energy utilisation. The major finding of this research was that the bird type influenced the digestibility of nutrients regardless of diet type, with higher digestibility in broilers compared to pullets and layers. Bird types showed different magnitude of digestibility responses to increased dietary fibre content. Nutrient digestibility responses to dietary fibre content were greater in layers than in broilers and pullets. Although feeding medium and coarse particles was associated with increased gizzard and proventriculus weights in both layers and broilers, only the layers benefited in terms of increase nutrient digestibility. Overall, these findings demonstrate that the digestive tract development and function in layers is more sensitive to feed structure. The implication is that feeding diets low in fibre and finely ground diets to layers should be avoided to achieve optimum digestion. The interactions observed between diet type or particle size and bird type suggest that the information available on the dietary inclusion level of fibre sources and nutrient digestibility for one type of bird may not be appropriate for use in diet formulation for the other type of birds. However, further research is required to determine the dietary fibre level and particle sizes to be considered in diets for different bird types.--From Introduction & Discussio

\ud Tanzania Health Insurance Regulatory Framework Review\ud

Make sure that current policy objectives – achieving universal coverage, social health protection, good governance and cost-containment – are reflected in the relevant legislative documents, and provide the requisite legal tools, reflecting the chosen policy options and the institutional consequences of those options. Consider reducing the fragmentation of the health financing legislation which reflects the current fragmentation in health financing and in governance and oversight of the health financing and insurance systems. Develop an explicit policy on competition in health financing to close the current gaps in legislation and to prevent the possibly negative side effects for Tanzania citizens of such competition in the event that the Government of Tanzania (GOT) opts for a competition-based model of health financing. The model ultimately chosen will have consequences not only for health financing practise, but also for the relevant legislation. Consider the establishment of an independent accreditation body for external assessment and gradual improvement of the quality of care of all health services providers, regardless of their sources of financing. Plug the identified gaps in single enactments which can be done without embarking on any big policy changes. The latter can be included in the development of a planned National Health Financing Strategy. During this development process, it will be possible to focus on specific areas of interest and make detailed recommendations. After national adoption of the strategy, new legislation will have to be drawn up.\ud \u

Spectroscopic and electronic structure studies of bis-metallodithiolenes

Dimethylsulfoxide reductase (DMSOR) enzyme family members catalyze oxygen atom transfer to or from organic or inorganic substrate and play important roles in the global cycles of sulfur and nitrogen, as well as the detoxification of arsenite. This enzyme has recently been subject of investigation due to its catalytic nature of oxygen atom transfer. This work reports on the electronic structure and reactivity properties of dimethylsulfoxide reductase enzyme studied using spectroscopic and computational methods. The spectroscopic methods included electronic absorption (EA), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) and resonance Raman rRaman). Here, we report full characterization of the DMSOR and DMSOR model compounds, MoO/S/Se(LCOOMe)2, MoO(LH/LO)2, MoS/Se(LPh)2, MoO(L2ipro/meth), MoO(SPh)2(Lipro), MoO(bdt)2 and WO/S(LPh)2- and the nature of their charge transfer transitions. The model compounds were studied in the (IV), (V) oxidation states. The electron withdrawing nature of LCOOMe, L2ipro/meth, LPh ligands have indicated the presence of a low energy intraligand charge transfer transition. Ligand field, metal to ligand charge transfer, ligand to metal charge transfer and intraligand charge transfer bands for these model compounds have been successfully assigned using both electronic absorption and rRaman spectroscopies for Mo(IV) compounds. EA and MCD spectroscopic methods enabled the assignment of Mo(V) compounds. The density functional theory calculations have supported our assignments. EPR spectroscopy revealed a rhombic g-tensor and axial A-tensors for Mo(V) compounds indicative of low symmetry coordination and a dxy redox orbital. Spin density calculations revealed that electron transfer is through unbent side of ene-dithiolene ligands for regeneration of Mo(VI) resting state in the catalytic cycle. In particular, for DMSO reductase enzyme, the electronic structure of a desoxo Mo(V) intermediate has been probed by EPR, electronic absorption and MCD spectroscopies. The EPR spectra revealed a rhombic g-tensor that indicated a low symmetry coordination for this intermediate. For the first time a rhombic 95,97Mo A-tensor has been determined, that indicated a dz2 redox orbital admixed with dxy/dx2-y2 type orbitals. In general, these methods have indicated that the geometry of Mo(V) intermediate is distorted trigonal prismatic

Motivation, money and respect: a mixed-method study of Tanzanian non-physician clinicians.

Poor quality of care is a major concern in low-income countries, and is in part attributed to low motivation of healthcare workers. Non-physician clinicians (mid-level cadre healthworkers) are central to healthcare delivery in half of the countries in Africa, but while much is expected from these clinicians, little is known about their expectations and motivation to perform well. Understanding what motivates these healthworkers in their work is essential to provide an empirical base for policy decisions to improve quality of healthcare. In 2006-2007, we conducted a mixed-method study to evaluate factors affecting motivation, including reasons for varying levels of motivation, amongst these clinicians in Tanzania. Using a conceptual framework of 'internal' and 'environmental' domains known to influence healthworker motivation in low-income countries, developed from existing literature, we observed over 2000 hospital consultations, interviewed clinicians to evaluate job satisfaction and morale, then designed and implemented a survey instrument to measure work motivation in clinical settings. Thematic analysis (34 interviews, one focus group) identified social status expectations as fundamental to dissatisfaction with financial remuneration, working environments and relationships between different clinical cadres. The survey included all clinicians working in routine patient care at 13 hospitals in the area; 150 returned sufficiently complete data for psychometric analysis. In regression, higher salary was associated with 'internal' motivation; amongst higher earners, motivation was also associated with higher qualification and salary enhancements. Salary was thus a clear prerequisite for motivation. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that non-salary motivators will only have an effect where salary requirements are satisfied. As well as improvements to organisational management, we put forward the case for the professionalization of non-physician clinicians

Mucuna pruriens differentially affect maize yields in three soils of Kakamega District

Maize production in smallholder farming systems in Kenya is largely limited by low soil fertility. As mineral fertilizer is expensive, green manuring using leguminous cover crops could be an alternative strategy for farmers to enhance farm productivity. However, due to variability in soil type, the effects of green manure are likely to differ with farms. This study was conducted in three contrasting soils in Kakamega District, Kenya, to evaluate Mucuna pruriens on (i) biomass and nitrogen fixation (15N natural abundance) and (ii) the effects on maize yields over two cropping seasons. Mucuna at 6 weeks accumulated 1-1.3 Mg ha-1 of dry matter and 33-56 kg ha-1 nitrogen of which approximately 70% was nitrogen derived from the atmosphere (Ndfa). Maize yield increased by 0.5-2 Mg ha-1, 0.7-2 Mg ha-1 and 1.5-4 Mg ha-1 with Mucuna, farmyard manure and mineral fertilizer use, respectively, and the response was stronger in Nitisol than in Acrisol or Ferralsol. We concluded that green manuring using Mucuna seem promising in enhancing soil fertility and maize yields in Kakamega, provided soil conditions and rainfall are suitable.Keywords: Acrisol, Ferralsol, green manure, Nitisol, nitrogen fixatio

An assessment of equity in the distribution of non-financial health care inputs across public primary health care facilities in Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: There is limited evidence on how health care inputs are distributed from the sub-national level down to health facilities and their potential influence on promoting health equity. To address this gap, this paper assesses equity in the distribution of health care inputs across public primary health facilities at the district level in Tanzania. METHODS: This is a quantitative assessment of equity in the distribution of health care inputs (staff, drugs, medical supplies and equipment) from district to facility level. The study was carried out in three districts (Kinondoni, Singida Rural and Manyoni district) in Tanzania. These districts were selected because they were implementing primary care reforms. We administered 729 exit surveys with patients seeking out-patient care; and health facility surveys at 69 facilities in early 2014. A total of seventeen indices of input availability were constructed with the collected data. The distribution of inputs was considered in relation to (i) the wealth of patients accessing the facilities, which was taken as a proxy for the wealth of the population in the catchment area; and (ii) facility distance from the district headquarters. We assessed equity in the distribution of inputs through the use of equity ratios, concentration indices and curves. RESULTS: We found a significant pro-rich distribution of clinical staff and nurses per 1000 population. Facilities with the poorest patients (most remote facilities) have fewer staff per 1000 population than those with the least poor patients (least remote facilities): 0.6 staff per 1000 among the poorest, compared to 0.9 among the least poor; 0.7 staff per 1000 among the most remote facilities compared to 0.9 among the least remote. The negative concentration index for support staff suggests a pro-poor distribution of this cadre but the 45 degree dominated the concentration curve. The distribution of vaccines, antibiotics, anti-diarrhoeal, anti-malarials and medical supplies was approximately proportional (non dominance), whereas the distribution of oxytocics, anti-retroviral therapy (ART) and anti-hypertensive drugs was pro-rich, with the 45 degree line dominating the concentration curve for ART. CONCLUSION: This study has shown there are inequities in the distribution of health care inputs across public primary care facilities. This highlights the need to ensure a better coordinated and equitable distribution of inputs through regular monitoring of the availability of health care inputs and strengthening of reporting systems

Money matters? Micro-credit and poverty reduction among poor women in Tanzania.

This thesis concerns the meaning and role of money as perceived both by poor women in Tanzania and the micro-credit agencies seeking to reduce their poverty. It argues that the economic understandings of money promoted by micro-credit do not reflect everyday monetary practices and beliefs, rendering the agencies less effective than they could be. Studying micro-credit is important given that it has been adopted as a major alternative poverty reduction strategy. This study contextualises women's understanding of money in terms of their participation in informal economy, their transition from rural to urban life, and their negotiation of gender roles and expectations. Empirical research focused on in-depth interviews with clients and staff at two micro-credit agencies in Dar es Salaam: PRIDE and SELFINA. Despite different policies and organisational structures, in both cases, the study found that women and micro-credit agencies have divergent understandings of money and its investment as well as of poverty and its reduction. Moreover both agencies treated money as a discrete element, largely ignoring the gender, social, cultural and patriarchal relations that influence these women's monetary practices and beliefs. This study concludes that micro-credit's attempt to alter resource allocation in the household by offering women an opportunity to earn money for economic investment without addressing issues of resource allocation and distribution within the household will not eventually benefit poor women