What Accounts for the Emergence of Malthusian Fertility in Transition Economies?

The transition to market-oriented economies in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union in the 1990s, like the Great Depression in the U.S. and Germany in the 1930s, generated sharp declines in real incomes and a corresponding drop in fertility. This is contrary to the robust negative relationship between income and fertility that has been extensively documented. This paper presents a theoretical model that explains the positive relationship between fertility and income. The model predicts that: i) the perceived level of subsistence consumption fundamentally determines whether fertility and income are positively or negatively related; ii) once incomes decline below a threshold, declining labor income causes fertility to fall; and iii) rising income inequality has a negative impact on fertility rates. Empirical tests using both aggregate and microeconomic data provide strong support for the predictions of the model. Our empirics predict that the perceived subsistence level is a statistically significant determinant of fertility and that the average country in our sample will remain in a Mathusian fertility regime for twenty more years.Fertility; Subsistence Consumption; Transition

The problem of court congestion : evidence from Indian lower courts

This paper explores the problem of court congestion in Indian lower courts. We use several measures to capture court congestion. These include: caseloads per capita and per judge, the number of cases older than a year per capita and per judge, and congestion rates calculated as the ratio of cases older than a year to cases disposed. We conclude that the Indian state judiciaries differ with respect to the nature and the level of congestion. We can also identify the reasons why some judiciaries are more congested than others. The results show that the large number of judges per capita is negatively related to congestion rates, while judgeship vacancies have a positive effect on caseloads per judge. Court productivity captured by the clearance rates has a significant and negative effect on both caseloads and congestion rates and seems to be crucial for the effectiveness of congestion-reduction programs. Finally, judiciaries with lower litigation rates display a relatively better performance with respect to current caseloads, but are not efficient in addressing the ?real? backlogs of cases pending for more than a year.Diese Arbeit untersucht das Problem der Überlastung an indischen Gerichten. Dabei verwenden wir verschiedene Indikatoren gerichtlicher Überlastung, z.B. die Gerichtsfälle pro Kopf und pro Richter, die Anzahl mehr als ein Jahr alter Gerichtsfälle pro Kopf und pro Richter, und Überlastungsraten aus dem Verhältnis von Fällen die älter als ein Jahr sind und abgeschlossenen Fällen. Wir folgern, dass die staatlichen Gerichte in Indien unterschiedliche Überlastungsarten und ?niveaus aufweisen. Ebenso legen wir die Gründe dar, warum manche Gerichte überlasteter sind als andere. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass eine große Richterzahl negativ mit den Überlastungsraten korreliert ist, während offene Stellen für das Richteramt einen positiven Effekt auf die Gerichtsfälle pro Richter ausüben. Die gerichtliche Produktivität, welche anhand von Bearbeitungsraten dargestellt wird, hat eine bedeutende negative Auswirkung sowohl auf die Anzahl an Gerichtsfällen, als auch auf die Überlastungsraten. Darüber hinaus scheint sie ausschlaggebend für die Wirksamkeit von Programmen zur Überlastungsverringerung zu sein. Schließlich weisen Richter mit niedrigen Prozessraten eine vergleichsweise bessere Leistung bezüglich aktueller Gerichtsfälle auf, sind jedoch weniger effizient, wenn es darum geht, die tatsächlichen Rückstände von Fällen die älter als ein Jahr alt sind aufzuarbeiten

Rural Nonfarm Employment and Incomes in the Eastern Himalayas

Nonfarm activities generate on average about 60 percent of rural households? incomes in the eastern Himalayan region of India. This paper analyzes the determinants of participation in nonfarm activities and of nonfarm incomes across rural households. We present and explore an analytical framework that yields different activity choices as optimal solutions to a simple utility maximization problem. A unique data set collected in the eastern Himalayas allows us to closely examine the implications of the analytical framework. We conduct an empirical inquiry that reveals that education plays a major role in accessing more remunerative nonfarm employment. Other household assets and characteristics such as land, social status, geographical location, and credit access also play a role

The problem of court congestion : Evidence from Indian lower courts

This paper explores the problem of court congestion in Indian lower courts. We use several measures to capture court congestion. These include: caseloads per capita and per judge, the number of cases older than a year per capita and per judge, and congestion rates calculated as the ratio of cases older than a year to cases disposed. We conclude that the Indian state judiciaries differ with respect to the nature and the level of congestion. We can also identify the reasons why some judiciaries are more congested than others. The results show that the large number of judges per capita is negatively related to congestion rates, while judgeship vacancies have a positive effect on caseloads per judge. Court productivity captured by the clearance rates has a significant and negative effect on both caseloads and congestion rates and seems to be crucial for the effectiveness of congestion-reduction programs. Finally, judiciaries with lower litigation rates display a relatively better performance with respect to current caseloads, but are not efficient in addressing the “real” backlogs of cases pending for more than a year

What accounts for the emergence of Malthusian fertility in transition economies?

The transition to market-oriented economies in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union in the 1990s, like the Great Depression in the U.S. and Germany in the 1930s, generated sharp declines in real incomes and a corresponding drop in fertility. This is contrary to the robust negative relationship between income and fertility that has been extensively documented. This paper presents a theoretical model that explains the positive relationship between fertility and income. The model predicts that: i) the perceived level of subsistence consumption fundamentally determines whether fertility and income are positively or negatively related; ii) once incomes decline below a threshold, declining labor income causes fertility to fall; and iii) rising income inequality has a negative impact on fertility rates. Empirical tests using both aggregate and microeconomic data provide strong support for the predictions of the model. Our empirics predict that the perceived subsistence level is a statistically significant determinant of fertility and that the average country in our sample will remain in a Mathusian fertility regime for twenty more years

THE PROBLEM OF COURT CONGESTION: EVIDENCE FROM INDIAN LOWER COURTS

This paper explores the problem of court congestion in Indian lower courts. We use several measures to capture court congestion. These include: caseloads per capita and per judge, the number of cases older than a year per capita and per judge, and congestion rates calculated as the ratio of cases older than a year to cases disposed. We conclude that the Indian state judiciaries differ with respect to the nature and the level of congestion. We can also identify the reasons why some judiciaries are more congested than others. The results show that the large number of judges per capita is negatively related to congestion rates, while judgeship vacancies have a positive effect on caseloads per judge. Court productivity captured by the clearance rates has a significant and negative effect on both caseloads and congestion rates and seems to be crucial for the effectiveness of congestion-reduction programs. Finally, judiciaries with lower litigation rates display a relatively better performance with respect to current caseloads, but are not efficient in addressing the �real� backlogs of cases pending for more than a year

THE PROBLEM OF COURT CONGESTION: EVIDENCE FROM INDIAN LOWER COURTS

This paper explores the problem of court congestion in Indian lower courts. We use several measures to capture court congestion. These include: caseloads per capita and per judge, the number of cases older than a year per capita and per judge, and congestion rates calculated as the ratio of cases older than a year to cases disposed. We conclude that the Indian state judiciaries differ with respect to the nature and the level of congestion. We can also identify the reasons why some judiciaries are more congested than others. The results show that the large number of judges per capita is negatively related to congestion rates, while judgeship vacancies have a positive effect on caseloads per judge. Court productivity captured by the clearance rates has a significant and negative effect on both caseloads and congestion rates and seems to be crucial for the effectiveness of congestion-reduction programs. Finally, judiciaries with lower litigation rates display a relatively better performance with respect to current caseloads, but are not efficient in addressing the �real� backlogs of cases pending for more than a year.Political Economy,

The problem of court congestion Evidence from Indian lower courts

'This paper explores the problem of court congestion in Indian lower courts. We use several measures to capture court congestion. These include: caseloads per capita and per judge, the number of cases older than a year per capita and per judge, and congestion rates calculated as the ratio of cases older than a year to cases disposed. We conclude that the Indian state judiciaries differ with respect to the nature and the level of congestion. We can also identify the reasons why some judiciaries are more congested than others. The results show that the large number of judges per capita is negatively related to congestion rates, while judgeship vacancies have a positive effect on caseloads per judge. Court productivity captured by the clearance rates has a significant and negative effect on both caseloads and congestion rates and seems to be crucial for the effectiveness of congestion-reduction programs. Finally, judiciaries with lower litigation rates display a relatively better performance with respect to current caseloads, but are not efficient in addressing the 'real' backlogs of cases pending for more than a year.' (author's abstract)'Diese Arbeit untersucht das Problem der Ueberlastung an indischen Gerichten. Dabei verwenden wir verschiedene Indikatoren gerichtlicher Ueberlastung, z.B. die Gerichtsfaelle pro Kopf und pro Richter, die Anzahl mehr als ein Jahr alter Gerichtsfaelle pro Kopf und pro Richter, und Ueberlastungsraten aus dem Verhaeltnis von Faellen die aelter als ein Jahr sind und abgeschlossenen Faellen. Wir folgern, dass die staatlichen Gerichte in Indien unterschiedliche Ueberlastungsarten und -niveaus aufweisen. Ebenso legen wir die Gruende dar, warum manche Gerichte ueberlasteter sind als andere. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass eine grosse Richterzahl negativ mit den Ueberlastungsraten korreliert ist, waehrend offene Stellen fuer das Richteramt einen positiven Effekt auf die Gerichtsfaelle pro Richter ausueben. Die gerichtliche Produktivitaet, welche anhand von Bearbeitungsraten dargestellt wird, hat eine bedeutende negative Auswirkung sowohl auf die Anzahl an Gerichtsfaellen, als auch auf die Ueberlastungsraten. Darueber hinaus scheint sie ausschlaggebend fuer die Wirksamkeit von Programmen zur Ueberlastungsverringerung zu sein. Schliesslich weisen Richter mit niedrigen Prozessraten eine vergleichsweise bessere Leistung bezueglich aktueller Gerichtsfaelle auf, sind jedoch weniger effizient, wenn es darum geht, die tatsaechlichen Rueckstaende von Faellen die aelter als ein Jahr alt sind aufzuarbeiten.' (Autorenreferat)German title: Das Problem der Ueberlastung der Gerichte: die Lage in den unteren Instanzen in IndienSIGLEAvailable from Universitaet Bonn, Zentrum fuer Entwicklungsforschung -ZEF-, Bonn (DE) / FIZ - Fachinformationszzentrum Karlsruhe / TIB - Technische InformationsbibliothekDEGerman