Dsubobscura Heat tolerance from Chilean populations

The dataset contains heat tolerance measured in static and dynamic assays

Thermal preference of Drosophila subobscura sampled along a latitudinal gradient in Chile

Thermal preference of Drosophila subobscura sampled along a latitudinal gradient in Chil

Schematic representation of the main reactions and components of vesicles with complementary replicating strands.

<p>Vesicles are composed of two types of macromolecules (type 1 as red, and type 2 as blue), and with two strand types (plus () strands with light, and minus () strands with dark shading). The minus () strands (molecules colored dark red) serve both as enzymes (enzymatic activity indicated with asterisk) for producing monomers (molecule colored green) from source material, and as templates for producing plus () strands (molecules colored orange). The monomers are used as the building blocks (green arrow) for the productions of replicators (replication complexes are indicated in curly brackets). The plus strand only serves as template for producing minus strands. For molecule type 2, the metabolic and replication processes are similar to those of molecule type 1 described above, except that the minus () strand catalyzes a different chemical reaction.</p

The effect of degradation rate of macromolecules on strand asymmetry.

<p>The equilibrium ratio of the minus and plus strands (indicated by the heights as well as the colors of the bars; red: 0.9→yellow: 0.5) is not affected significantly by the rate of degradation, however increasing the degradation rate above a threshold results in the extinction of the replicators (notice the flat grey area on the right hand side of the graph). For strong trade-off (), this threshold is at a lower rate of degradation, whereas higher degradation rates are tolerated as the strength of trade-off decreases (). The results are averaged over 3 replicate model runs. Other parameters: , , , , , , , , , and .</p

Characteristics of secondary structures of complementary strands.

<p>The characteristics of minimum free energy secondary structures are measured on a sample of 10⁷ randomly generated sequences of length 50. In case of complementary strands, the complementary sequences of the randomly generated strands are also analyzed. (<b>A</b>) Complementary strands have higher full tree edit distance between them (red bars) than random sequence pairs (black bars). (<b>B</b>) Energy difference between members of pairs of complementary, folded strands. Around tree edit distance 30 most complementary, folded structures have negligible energy difference, but a decreasing proportion of pairs show a difference of up to 40 kcal. (<b>C</b>) Example of a complementary pair of strands in which one of the strands does not have a structure, while the other has a rich structure. The difference of their minimum free energies is (6.6 kcal). (<b>D</b>) Example of a complementary pair of strands in which the two strands have very different (tree edit distance 68) but still rich structures. The difference of their minimum free energies is (7.0 kcal).</p

Factors affecting the rate of asymmetry between the minus and the plus strands.

<p>(<b>A</b>) In cases when the strength of trade-off is high (), the asymmetry between the minus and plus strands is strong, however as the strength of trade-off decreases (), since in these cases molecules can achieve high metabolic activity without trading off their replication affinities, the asymmetry becomes less pronounced. (<b>B</b>) As the number of the initial number of molecules () per vesicle is increased () the rate of asymmetry gradually decreases (). (<b>C</b>) The effect of kinetic parameters for strong trade-off (blue lines: ) and for weak trade-off (green lines: ). Here we increased the inflow rate of source material from the environment into the vesicle () (light blue and green lines: and ; middle dark blue and green lines: and ; dark blue and green lines: and ). For low inflow rate and kinetic constants, high metabolic activities of minus strands evolve, which results in high rate of asymmetries between the two strands. However lowering the inflow rate or the kinetic rate of reactions beyond a threshold results in the extinction of replicators (notice the absence of equilibrium ratio of asymmetry, for example , and , i.e. left hand side of the light blue curve). The results are averaged over 5 replicate model runs, and over 1,000,000 molecular update steps after reaching equilibrium. Whiskered bars represent the standard errors of the replicate runs. Other parameters (if not stated otherwise): , , , , , , , , , , , and .</p

The evolution of division of labor when both replication affinity and metabolic activity of replicators are allowed to evolve separately.

<p>(<b>A</b>) A representative example of simulations resulting in asymmetric strand template reaction averaged over the population of vesicles (: red; : orange; : dark blue; : light blue). Simulations begin from an initially symmetric state, i.e. all strand types are represented in equal numbers () and equal template replication rates (). We assume low initial metabolic activity of the minus strands () and a trade-off between the maximum values of the replication affinity and the catalytic activity of the replicators (see red line in <b>C</b>), i.e. no replicator can evolve traits above this boundary, but any rate combination below the curve is accessible (i.e. , see Models <a href="http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003936#pcbi.1003936.e174" target="_blank">Eq. 1b</a>). (<b>B</b>) As metabolic activity gradually evolves towards high values (brown and dark blue lines, ) the minus strands trade in replication affinity (red and blue lines, ) in order to reach the optimum. When the replication affinity of the plus strand can also evolve, evolution further optimizes the protocell composition in favor of strand asymmetry by evolving the highest possible affinity for the plus strand (grey and dark grey lines, ). Here is allowed to evolve without any trade-off (, and the initial condition is ). (<b>C</b>) Trajectories from different initial conditions (green: and ; purple: and ; and blue: and ) converge to the same equilibrium. Solid and dotted lines depict molecule types 1 and 2, respectively. Filled circles represent the initial data points, while light shaded circles and rectangles represent the evolutionary endpoints for traits of molecules 1 and 2, respectively. For the above results we employed a continuous-trait model, in which traits were allowed to change continuously between 0 and 1, and mutant traits were drawn from a normal distribution with the resident trait as a mean and with variance . Other parameters: , , , , , , , , , , and .</p

Parameters of the model.

<p>Parameters of the model.</p

The evolution of division of labor between minus () and plus () strands.

<p>(<b>A</b>) A representative example of simulations resulting in asymmetric strand separation averaged over the population of vesicles (: red; : orange; : dark blue; : light blue). Starting from an initially symmetric state, i.e. all strand types are represented in equal numbers (), and of equal replication rates () (<i>J</i> denotes the mutation class with trait ). The trade-off in this case is assumed to be strong between the replication affinity and the catalytic activity. Hence the trait of the minus strand (<b>B</b>) gradually evolves towards lower replication rates () in order to achieve higher metabolic activity (). During trait evolution the ratio of minus (dark shadings) and plus (light shadings) strands changes, and the minuses significantly increase in numbers. At stable equilibrium, for the very extreme cases, only 4–8% of the macromolecules, on average 2 or 3 per vesicle, are plus strands. Other parameters: , , , , , , , , , , , and .</p

G_matrix

Additive genetic variance-covariance square matrix for skull shape