Toxicological effects of palytoxin after cutaneous exposure

2010/2011Palytoxin (PLTX) is a marine toxin identified in Palythoa zoanthid corals and Ostreopsis dinoflagellates, representing an increasing hazard for human health. Human poisonings attributed to PLTX exposure are usually associated to ingestion of contaminated seafood and to marine aerosol exposure during Ostreopsis blooms. However, also dermatological problems have been recently associated to PLTX cutaneous exposure during Ostreopsis blooms as well as after handling of Palythoa corals. Despite the increasing human cases of dermotoxicity attributed to PLTX, very few data about its dermal toxicity are presently available. Hence, the aim of this study is to investigate the cutaneous effects of PLTX characterizing its mechanism of action. Thus, this toxicological in vitro study has been carried out on spontaneously immortalized human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells), as a first-round screening of dermotoxicity. The entity of cytotoxicity induced by PLTX has been firstly investigated. A short time exposure (4 h) to PLTX reduces mitochondrial activity (MTT assay), cell mass (SRB assay) and plasma membrane integrity (LDH leakage) with different potencies (EC50 values of 6.1±1.3x10-11, 4.7±0.9x10-10 M and 1.8±0.1x10-8 M, respectively). All these effects are ouabain-sensitive corroborating the dependency of PLTX effects on the interaction with Na+/K+-ATPase. These results indicate that among the chain of intracellular events following the interaction of PLTX with the Na+/K+-ATPase the earliest is mitochondrial damage. This sustained cytotoxic effect can be explained by the high affinity of binding to HaCaT cells. Indeed, saturation experiment reveals a Kd affinity constant of 3.0±0.4x10-10 M after an exposure time as short as 10 minutes. A possible mechanism of mitochondrial dysfunction can be reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction. Among all, only superoxide anion (O2-) seems to be produced by the toxin after only 1 h, whereas neither nitric oxide nor peroxynitrite formation are detected. Hence, the mechanism of O2- production has been investigated. Real time PCR analysis together with western blot analysis suggest a possible involvement of NADPH oxidase (NOX) and inducible nitric oxide synthetase (iNOS) since an early increase of their gene and protein expression was observed after short (1 – 4 h) but not longer (24 h) exposure times. On the contrary, other enzymes involved in ROS production (i.e. COX-1, COX-2, XOD) seem to be not involved in PLTX effects. Moreover, using selective inhibitors of these enzymes, we found that only DPI, a nonspecific inhibitor of both NOX and NOS, is able to inhibit by 15%, 26% and 43% O2- production induced by 10-10, 10-9 and 10-8 M PLTX, respectively. However, NMMA, inhibitor of NOS, significantly reduces only O2- produced by high (10-8 M) but no by low (10-9 and 10-10 M) PLTX concentrations, whereas the selective inhibitor of NOX apocynin is totally ineffective. Moreover, since their co-administration does not reproduce DPI effect, a prominent role of these enzymes in causing PLTX-induced oxidative stress seems unlikely. Another feasible source of O2- is mitochondria itself and its production is regulated by H+ fluxes through mitochondrial membranes. Indeed, in presence of nigericin, an ionophore that reduces the H+ imbalance, PLTX-induced O2- is significantly reduced by 23% (10-9 M PLTX) and 24% (10-8 M PLTX). Furthermore, the co-administration with rotenone, a complex I inhibitor, that per se is ineffective, results in a further inhibition of O2- production (-32% and -43% in the presence of 10-9 and 10-8 M PLTX, respectively). Moreover, O2- production turned out to be ouabain-sensitive and Na+-dependent but Ca2+-independent. Thus, on the basis of these results it has been hypothesized that PLTX binding to Na+/K+-ATPase induces intracellular overload of Na+ followed by intracellular increase of H+ with a consequent ΔpH increase across H+-impermeable mitochondrial inner membrane and O2- overproduction by reverse electron transports through mitochondrial chain. Under oxidative stress conditions, mitochondrial dysfunction can be mediated by mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP), which opening, indeed, is induced by PLTX already after only 5 minutes exposure. MPTP opening, which turned out to be cyclosporine A-independent, seems to be mainly induced by the sustained ionic imbalance, since in Na+-free, Ca2+-free medium and in presence of nigericin PLTX effect is strongly inhibited. The very rapid Na+-dependent opening of MPTP suggests that this is the peculiar mechanism of PLTX cytotoxicity and cell death primum movens. Cell death induced by the toxin seems to occur with necrotic-like features. PLTX, indeed, induces a concentration- and time-dependent as well as irreversible uptake of PI after only 1 h exposure and confocal images revealed dramatic morphological alterations such as plasma membrane ruptures and leakage of cytolpasmic content after 4 h. By contrast, caspasis 3/7, 8 and 9 are not activated by PLTX up to 24 h, neither under recovery conditions. Moreover, apoptotic bodies formation is not observed, discarding apoptosis occurrence. Finally, PLTX effects on some pro-inflammatory mediators such as cytokines (IL-1α, IL-6, IL-8 and TNF-α) and arachidonic acid metabolism products (PGE2 and LTB4) have been evaluated. The toxin (10-11 M) induces an early release of PGE2 that is time-dependent after 2 h exposure. On the contrary, even if an early gene expression (1–4 h) is observed, the toxin induces a delayed release of IL-6 and IL-8 (24 h), whereas no effects have been observed evaluating IL-1α and TNF-α. In conclusion, this study highlights the toxic in vitro properties of PLTX on human keratinocytes. The intracellular pathway of the sustained PLTX cytotoxicity leading to cell death has been characterized, as well as the inflammatory mediators involved in skin irritant properties of the toxin. These results can corroborate the use of non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in association with anti-inflammatory corticosteroids.La palitossina (PLTX) è una tossina marina identificata in coralli zoantidi appartenenti al genere Palythoa e dinoflagellati del genere Ostreopsis. Intossicazioni umane attribuite alla PLTX sono state solitamente associate all'ingestione di prodotti ittici contaminati, nonché da un'esposizione ad aerosol marino durante le fioriture di Ostreopsis. Tuttavia, anche problemi dermatologici sono stati recentemente associati alla PLTX in seguito ad esposizione cutanea durante fioriture di Ostreopsis o manipolando coralli Palythoa. Nonostante i crescenti casi di dermotossicità attribuiti alla PLTX, pochissimi dati sulla sua tossicità cutanea sono attualmente disponibili. Lo scopo di questo studio è stato, pertanto, indagare gli effetti cutanei della PLTX caratterizzando il suo meccanismo d'azione. E’ stato quindi effettuato uno studio tossicologico in vitro su cheratinociti umani spontaneamente immortalizzati (cellule HaCaT), considerate metodo predittivo per uno screening preliminare di dermotossicità. In primo luogo è stato caratterizzato il grado di citotossicità indotta dalla tossina. Un breve tempo d'esposizione (4 h) alla PLTX riduce l'attività mitocondriale (saggio MTT), la massa cellulare (saggio SRB) e l'integrità della membrana plasmatica (perdita LDH) con diversi valori di EC50 (6.1 ± 1.3x10-11, 4.7 ± 0.9x10-10 M e 1.8 ± 0.1x10-8 M, rispettivamente). Tutti questi effetti sono sensibili alla ouabaina, corroborando la dipendenza degli effetti della PLTX sull'interazione con la Na+/K+-ATPasi. Questi risultati indicano che fra la catena di eventi intracellulari dopo l'interazione con l’ATPasi il più sensibile è un danno mitocondriale. Questo effetto può essere spiegato dall’alta affinità di legame della tossina con le cellule HaCaT. Infatti, esperimenti di saturazione rivelano una costante di affinità (Kd) pari a 3,0 ± 0.4x10-10 M dopo un tempo di esposizione molto breve (10 minuti). Uno dei possibili meccanismi di disfunzione mitocondriale è una sovrapproduzione di specie reattive dell'ossigeno (ROS). Tra tutti, solo l’anione superossido (O2-) sembra essere prodotto dalla tossina dopo 1 h, mentre né ossido nitrico né formazione di perossinitrito sono stati rilevati. Quindi, il meccanismo di produzione di O2- è stato studiato. Analisi real time-PCR ed analisi western blot suggeriscono un possibile coinvolgimento della NADPH ossidasi (NOX) e della forma inducibile dell’ossido nitrico sintetasi (iNOS) poiché un aumento precoce della loro espressione genica e stata osservata dopo brevi (1 - 4 h) ma non lunghi (24 h) tempi di esposizione. Al contrario, altri enzimi coinvolti nella produzione di ROS (COX-1, COX-2, XOD) sembrano non essere coinvolti nel meccanismo di produzione di O2- da parte della tossina. Inoltre, tramite l'utilizzo di inibitori selettivi di questi enzimi, è emerso che solo il DPI, un inibitore non specifico sia di NOX che di NOS, è in grado di inibire del 15%, 26% e 43% la produzione di O2- indotta da 10-10, 10-9 e 10-8 M PLTX, rispettivamente. Tuttavia, l’NMMA, inibitore delle NOS, riduce in modo significativo solo O2- prodotto da alte (10-8 M), ma non basse (10-9 e 10-10 M) concentrazioni di PLTX, mentre l'inibitore selettivo delle NOX apocinina è totalmente inefficace. Inoltre, poiché la loro co-somministrazione non riproduce l’effetto inibitorio del DPI, un ruolo preminente di questi enzimi nel causare stress ossidativo sembra improbabile. Un'altra fonte possibile di O2- è il mitocondrio. La sua produzione è regolata dal flusso di H+ attraverso le membrane mitocondriali. Infatti, in presenza di nigericina, uno ionoforo che riduce lo squilibrio protonico, i livelli di O2- indotti dalla PLTX vengono significativamente ridotti del 23% (10-9 M PLTX) e 24% (10-8 M PLTX). Inoltre, la co-somministrazione con il rotenone, un inibitore del complesso I della catena mitocondriale di trasporto degli elettroni, che è di per sé inefficace, induce un’ulteriore inibizione di produzione di O2- (-32% e -43% in presenza di 10-9 e 10-8 M PLTX, rispettivamente). Inoltre, la produzione di O2- risulta essere ouabaina-sensibile e Na+-dipendente, ma Ca2+-indipendente. Pertanto, sulla base di questi risultati è stato ipotizzato che il legame della PLTX con la Na+/K+-ATPasi induce un aumento intracellulare di Na+ seguito da aumento intracellulare di H+ con un conseguente aumento di ΔpH attraverso la membrana mitocondriale interna con una sovrapproduzione di O2- indotta dal trasporto inverso degli elettroni attraverso la catena mitocondriale. In condizioni di stress ossidativo, la disfunzione mitocondriale può essere mediata dall’apertura dei pori di transizione mitocondriali (MPTP). La loro apertura, infatti, viene indotta dalla PLTX già dopo soli 5 minuti di esposizione. Tale apertura, che si è rivelata ciclosporinaA-indipendente, sembra principalmente indotta dallo squilibrio ionico indotto dalla tossina, poiché in terreni privo di Na+ e privo di Ca2+ e in terreno contenente nigericina, l’attività della tossina è fortemente inibita. La rapidissima apertura di MPTP suggerisce che questo è il peculiare meccanismo di citotossicità della tossina e il primum movens della cellule morte. La morte cellulare sembra verificarsi con un danno necrotico. La PLTX, infatti, induce un uptake di PI (marker di necrosi) in maniera concentrazione e tempo-dipendente. Tale uptake è inoltre irreversibile, dopo solo 1 h di esposizione e immagini ottenute al microscopio confocale rivelano drammatiche alterazioni morfologiche, quali rotture della membrana plasmatica e la perdita di contenuto citoplasmatico dopo 4 h. Al contrario, le caspasi 3/7, 8 e 9 non sono attivate dalla PLTX fino a 24 h, né sotto condizioni di recovery. Inoltre, la formazione di corpi apoptotici non è stata rilevata, scartando l’ipotesi di una morte di tipo apoptotico. Infine, gli effetti della PLTX su alcuni mediatori proinfiammatori quali citochine (IL-1α, IL-6, IL-8 e TNF-α) e metaboliti dell’acido arachidonico (PGE2 e LTB4) sono stati valutati. La tossina (10-11 M) induce una rapida produzione di PGE2 che è tempo-dipendente dopo 2 ore di esposizione. Al contrario, la tossina induce un rilascio ritardato di IL-6 e IL-8 (24 h), anche se alterazioni dell'espressione genica si sono osservate dopo breve tempo di contatto con la tossina (1-4 h). mentre non sono stati osservati effetti valutando IL-1α e TNF -α. In conclusione, questo studio mette in evidenza le proprietà tossiche in vitro della PLTX su cheratinociti umani. L’elevata citotossicità indotta dalla tossina conduce ad una morte cellulare di tipo necrotico mediata dai mitocondri. Infine, i mediatori infiammatori coinvolti nella proprietà irritanti della pelle della tossina sono stati caratterizzati, ponendo delle basi molecolari per spiegare l'utilizzo di farmaci anti-infiammatori non steroidei in associazione con corticosteroidi.XXIV Ciclo198

Assessment of skin sensitization properties of few-layer graphene and graphene oxide through the Local Lymph Node Assay (OECD TG 442B)

: Skin contact is one of the most common exposure routes to graphene-based materials (GBMs) during their small-scale and industrial production or their use in technological applications. Nevertheless, toxic effects in humans by cutaneous exposure to GBMs remain largely unexplored, despite skin contact to other related materials has been associated with adverse effects. Hence, this in vivo study was carried out to evaluate the cutaneous effects of two GBMs, focusing on skin sensitization as a possible adverse outcome. Skin sensitization by few-layer graphene (FLG) and graphene oxide (GO) was evaluated following the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guideline 442B (Local Lymph Node Assay; LLNA) measuring the proliferation of auricular lymph node cells during the induction phase of skin sensitization. Groups of four female CBA/JN mice (8-12 weeks) were daily exposed to FLG or GO through the dorsal skin of each ear (0.4-40 mg/mL, equal to 0.01-1.00 mg/ear) for 3 consecutive days, and proliferation of auricular lymph node cells was evaluated 3 days after the last treatment. During this period, no clinical signs of toxicity and no alterations in body weight and food or water consumptions were observed. In addition, no ear erythema or edema were recorded as signs of irritation or inflammation. Bromo-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation in proliferating lymphocytes from ear lymph nodes (stimulation indexes <1.6) and the histological analysis of ear tissues excluded sensitizing or irritant properties of these materials, while myeloperoxidase activity in ear biopsies confirmed no inflammatory cells infiltrate. On the whole, this study indicates the absence of sensitization and irritant potential of FLG and GO

Occupational exposure to graphene based nanomaterials: Risk assessment

Graphene-based materials (GBMs) are a family of novel materials including graphene, few layer graphene (FLG), graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and graphene nanoplatelets (GNP). Currently, the risk posed by them to human health is associated mainly with the occupational exposure during their industrial and small-scale production or waste discharge. The most significant occupational exposure routes are inhalation, oral, cutaneous and ocular, inhalation being the majorly involved and most studied one. This manuscript presents a critical up-to-date review of the available in vivo toxicity data of the most significant GBMs, after using these exposure routes. The few in vivo inhalation toxicity studies (limited to 5-days of repeated exposure and only one to 5 days per week for 4 weeks) indicate inflammatory/fibrotic effects at the pulmonary level, not always reversible after 14/90 days. More limited in vivo data are available for the oral and ocular exposure routes, whereas the studies on cutaneous toxicity are at the initial stage. A long persistence of GBMs in rodents is recorded, while contradictory genotoxic data are reported. Data gap identification is also provided. Based on the available data, the occupational exposure limit cannot be determined. More experimental toxicity studies according to specific guidelines (tentatively validated for nanomaterials) and more information on the actual occupational exposure level to GBMs are needed. Furthermore, ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion), genotoxicity, developmental and reproductive toxicity data related to the occupational exposure to GBMs have to be implemented. In addition, sub-chronic and/or chronic studies are still needed to completely exclude other toxic effects and/or carcinogenicity

Sanitary problems related to the presence of Ostreopsis spp. in the Mediterranean Sea: a multidisciplinary scientific approach

The increased presence of potentially toxic microalgae in the Mediterranean area is a matter of great concern. Since the end of the last century, microalgae of the genus Ostreopsis have been detected more and more frequently in the Italian coastal waters. The presence of Ostreopsis spp. has been accompanied by the presence of previously undetected marine biotoxins (palytoxins) into the ecosystem with the increased possibility of human exposure. In response to the urgent need for toxicity characterization of palytoxin and its congeners, an integrated study encompassing both in vitro and in vivo methods was performed

Impact of physico-chemical properties on the toxicological potential of reduced graphene oxide in human bronchial epithelial cells

The increasing use of graphene-based materials (GBM) requires their safety evaluation, especially in occupational settings. The same physico-chemical (PC) properties that confer GBM extraordinary functionalities may affect the potential toxic response. Most toxicity assessments mainly focus on graphene oxide and rarely investigate GBMs varying only by one property. As a novelty, the present study assessed the in vitro cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of six reduced graphene oxides (rGOs) with different PC properties in the human bronchial epithelial 16HBE14o − cell line. Of the six materials, rGO1-rGO4 only differed in the carbon-to-oxygen (C/O) content, whereas rGO5 and rGO6 were characterized by different lateral size and number of layers, respectively, but similar C/O content compared with rGO1. The materials were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, laser diffraction and dynamic light scattering, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis. Cytotoxicity (Luminescent Cell Viability and WST-8 assays), the induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS; 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescin diacetate-based assay), the production of cytokines (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays) and genotoxicity (comet and micronucleus assays) were evaluated. Furthermore, the internalization of the materials in the cells was confirmed by laser confocal microscopy. No relationships were found between the C/O ratio or the lateral size and any of the rGO-induced biological effects. However, rGO of higher oxygen content showed higher cytotoxic and early ROS-inducing potential, whereas genotoxic effects were observed with the rGO of the lowest density of oxygen groups. On the other hand, a higher number of layers seems to be associated with a decreased potential for inducing cytotoxicity and ROS production

Role of Oxidative Stress Mediated by Glutathione-S-transferase in Thiopurines' Toxic Effects

Azathioprine (AZA), 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP), and 6-thioguanine (6-TG) are antimetabolite drugs, widely used as immunosuppressants and anticancer agents. Despite their proven efficacy, a high incidence of toxic effects in patients during standard-dose therapy is recorded. The aim of this study is to explain, from a mechanistic point of view, the clinical evidence showing a significant role of glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-M1 genotype on AZA toxicity in inflammatory bowel disease patients. To this aim, the human nontumor IHH and HCEC cell lines were chosen as predictive models of the hepatic and intestinal tissues, respectively. AZA, but not 6-MP and 6-TG, induced a concentration-dependent superoxide anion production that seemed dependent on GSH depletion. N-Acetylcysteine reduced the AZA antiproliferative effect in both cell lines, and GST-M1 overexpression increased both superoxide anion production and cytotoxicity, especially in transfected HCEC cells. In this study, an in vitro model to study thiopurines' metabolism has been set up and helped us to demonstrate, for the first time, a clear role of GST-M1 in modulating AZA cytotoxicity, with a close dependency on superoxide anion production. These results provide the molecular basis to shed light on the clinical evidence suggesting a role of GST-M1 genotype in influencing the toxic effects of AZA treatment

Long Noncoding RNA GAS5: A Novel Marker Involved in Glucocorticoid Response

Glucocorticoids (GCs) exert their effects through regulation of gene expression after activation in the cytoplasm of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) encoded by NR3C1 gene. A negative feedback mechanism resulting in GR autoregulation has been demonstrated through the binding of the activated receptor to intragenic sequences called GRE-like elements, contained in GR gene. The long noncoding RNA growth arrest-specific transcript 5 (GAS5) interacts with the activated GR suppressing its transcriptional activity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the possible role of GAS5 and NR3C1 gene expression in the antiproliferative effect of methylprednisolone in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and to correlate the expression with individual sensitivity to GCs. Subjects being poor responders to GCs presented higher levels of GAS5 and NR3C1 in comparison with good responders. We suggest that abnormal levels of GAS5 may alter GC effectiveness, probably interfering with the mechanism of GR autoregulation

Keratinocytes are capable of selectively sensing low amounts of graphene-based materials: Implications for cutaneous applications

Abstract Skin provides the first interface between body and environment, representing one of the most feasible exposure routes to graphene-based materials (GBMs). However, interactions of GBMs with the skin are poorly understood. In particular, low-concentration effects have not been investigated. Here we explored the ability of endotoxin-free, few-layer graphene (FLG) and dehydrated graphene oxide (d-GO) to initiate an inflammatory response at the cutaneous level by using human HaCaT keratinocytes. HaCaT cell exposure to low concentrations (0.01–1.0 μg/mL) of FLG or d-GO did not affect cell viability. FLG triggered the secretion of pro-inflammatory tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1α, and IL-6, while d-GO, and to a lesser extent FLG, prompted IL-8 (CXCL8) production. However, conditioned medium from HaCaT cells exposed to FLG or d-GO had no effect on THP-1 monocyte activation. Moreover, co-culture experiments did not show any effect of FLG- or d-GO-treated HaCaT cells on THP-1 cell migration. These results suggest that while GBMs are able to initiate an inflammatory response in keratinocytes, this does not necessarily lead to activation of monocytes. The present findings are relevant for potential dermal exposures to GBMs in occupational settings as well as the use of GBMs for cutaneous applications such as in wearable sensors

Role of Chemical Reduction and Formulation of Graphene Oxide on Its Cytotoxicity towards Human Epithelial Bronchial Cells

Graphene-based materials may pose a potential risk for human health due to occupational exposure, mainly by inhalation. This study was carried out on bronchial epithelial 16HBE14o− cells to evaluate the role of chemical reduction and formulation of graphene oxide (GO) on its cytotoxic potential. To this end, the effects of GO were compared to its chemically reduced form (rGO) and its stable water dispersion (wdGO), by means of cell viability reduction, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, pro-inflammatory mediators release and genotoxicity. These materials induced a concentration-dependent cell viability reduction with the following potency rank: rGO &gt; GO &gt;&gt; wdGO. After 24 h exposure, rGO reduced cell viability with an EC50 of 4.8 μg/mL (eight-fold lower than that of GO) and was the most potent material in inducing ROS generation, in contrast to wdGO. Cytokines release and genotoxicity (DNA damage and micronucleus induction) appeared low for all the materials, with wdGO showing the lowest effect, especially for the former. These results suggest a key role for GO reduction in increasing GO cytotoxic potential, probably due to material structure alterations resulting from the reduction process. In contrast, GO formulated in a stable dispersion seems to be the lowest cytotoxic material, presumably due to its lower cellular internalization and damaging capacity

Skin irritation potential of graphene-based materials using a non-animal test

Graphene related materials, if prepared with non-irritant exfoliation agents, do not induce skin irritation on a 3D model of human epidermis, following the OECD guideline 439