Comment on ‘Consequences of progressive eclogitization on crustal exhumation, a mechanical study' by H. Raimbourg, L. Jolivet and Y. Leroy

Two simple end-member models of a subduction channel have been proposed in the literature: (i) the ‘pressure-imposed' model for which the pressure within the channel is assumed to be lithostatic, the channel walls have negligible strength with respect to lateral pressure gradients, and the channel geometry therefore varies with time and (ii) the ‘geometry-imposed' model of constant channel geometry, rigid walls and resultant lateral variation in pressure. Neither of these models is realistic, but they provide lower and upper bounds to potential pressure distributions in natural subduction zones. The critical parameter is the relative strength of the confining plates, reflected in the effective viscosity ratio between the channel fill and the walls. The assertion that the ‘geometry-imposed' model is internally inconsistent is incorrect—it merely represents one bound to possible behaviour and a bound that may be approached for realistic values of the effective viscosity for weak channel fill (e.g. unconsolidated ocean-floor sediments) and relatively cold and strong subducting and overriding lithospheric plate

Structure and kinematics of the northern Simano Nappe, Central Alps, Switzerland

Abstract.: New structural data allow the internal structure and kinematics of the Lower Penninic Simano Nappe to be established, together with the relationship of this unit to the underlying Leventina Gneisses and the also underlying Maggia Nappe. Three clearly distinguishable Alpine deformation phases (D1, D2, D3) are recognized within the Simano Nappe. D1 developed in mid-crustal levels under metamorphic conditions of ca. 1 GPa and 500°C and produced kilometre-scale, recumbent, north-closing anticlinal folds, called nappes. During D2 these nappes were intensely refolded on the same scale and with identical style to form the present day recumbent fold pattern. The axial planar foliation S2 is the dominant planar fabric throughout most of the Central Alps. The subsequent phase D3 overprints the entire tectonostratigraphy of the Central Alps, with broader and more upright D3 folds trending oblique to the orogen. Regionally, these broad D3 folds have a major influence on the overall foliation and nappe outcrop pattern of the Central Alps. During D2 and D3, peak metamorphic conditions reached temperatures of up to 650°C, under pressures of 0.7-0.8 GPa. An important consequence of this deformation history is that lithological units separated only by D2-synforms formed part of the same tectonostratigraphic level after D1 nappe-stacking and therefore should not be interpreted as different nappes. This principle can be directly applied to the relationship between the Simano and the two adjacent units. The underlying Leventina Gneisses are separated from the Simano rocks by an originally intrusive contact that has been strongly reactivated during both D1 and D2. Therefore, it is taken to represent a true nappe contact, although locally it still retains some original intrusive relationships and has also been strongly reactivated during D2. The Maggia and Simano units represent alternate limbs of a D2 synform-antiform pair, the Mogno synform and the Larecc antiform, or more generally the Verzasca-Larecc-Ganna antiform. If the Maggia unit is simply the continuation of the Simano unit around the D2 Mogno synform, then post-D1 they represented a single Simano-Maggia Nappe. The Maggia "Nappe” is therefore also part of the European margin and cannot be separately assigned to the Briançonnais paleogeographic domain, as has been propose

Cretaceous syn-sedimentary faulting in the Wildhorn Nappe (SW Switzerland)

During Cretaceous time, the area of the future Helvetic nappes (Central Alps, south-western Switzerland) was part of a large ramp-type carbonate depositional system on the European margin, in which the area of the Wildhorn Nappe was transitional to the more distal and relatively deeper Ultrahelvetic basin. The Wildhorn Nappe includes an Upper Cretaceous succession bearing clear evidence for syn-sedimentary normal faulting, such as syn-sedimentary geometries related to well oriented NE-striking faults, sedimentary dykes, lateral variations in the thickness and facies of formations, anomalous and discordant contacts corresponding to palaeo-escarpments, and slump folds. Four stages of syn-sedimentary fault activity have been recognized. (1) Post-Cenomanian disruption and exhumation of the Schrattenkalk platform related to distributed normal faulting, which contributed to the initiation of karst erosion on topographic highs and sedimentation in topographic lows. (2) Turonian-Santonian marine transgression accompanied by localized normal faulting, creating growth-fault structures, differential subsidence and slope instability. A transition from distributed to more localized faulting is observed, related to a final stage in the evolution of the Cretaceous extensional process. (3) Early Maastrichtian faulting. The facies and thickness of subsequent sediments reflect a passive adaption to the pre-existing topography of the sea floor, established during the earlier tectonic movements. (4) Post-Maastrichtian north-directed tilt and erosion. In the Wildhorn Nappe, palaeo-fault activity most probably ended in the Early Maastrichtian rather than continuing into the Eocene. Until now, the regional importance and magnitude of Late Cretaceous extension has not been recognized in the Helvetic domain. This widespread event may be related to post-breakup extensional tectonics along the European margin or, alternatively but less likely, to lateral gravitational collapse of the margin

Structural geology and petrography of the Naret region (northern Valle Maggia, N.Ticino, Switzerland)

The Naret region has a complex geological history of Alpine polyphase folding and metamorphism that affected pre-Alpine rocks of the Maggia nappe, including the Matorello group (interpreted in this study as late-Variscan intrusives), the Lebendun nappe and Mesozoic rocks of the Bedretto zone. From field observations, four main ductile deformation phases (D1 to D4) can be distinguished and, in combination with thermodynamic modelling, the tectono-metamorphic evolution for the Naret region can be reconstructed. D1 formed the initial nappe stack. During this phase, the Maggia nappe was thrust over the Lebendun nappe, at T ≤ 570°C and P ≤ 10 kbar. D2 caused isoclinal refolding of the nappe pile, at around 610-640°C and 8.5-10 kbar, and produced both the main regional foliation (S2) and a penetrative stretching lineation which is generally parallel to F2 fold axes. D2 is largely responsible for the current complicated geometry of the Lebendun nappe boundary. The main phase of porphyroblastesis occurred between D2 and D3, corresponding to a metamorphic temperature peak of ca. 640-650°C at pressures of ca. 8-9 kbar. D3 produced open folds oblique to the general Alpine trend ("crossfolding”) and locally a crenulation cleavage with a well developed crenulation lineation, at estimated temperatures of 550-610°C. The last important phase, D4, caused open backfolding of all pre-existing structures and is responsible for steepening of the main S2 foliation, to produce the Northern Steep Zone, and for a regional rotation of S3 and L3. D4 developed at T ≥ 550°C and P ≥ 3 kbar. The Lebendun nappe is a complicated structure developed as the result of non-coaxial fold interference related to D1 and D2. From tectono-stratigraphic evidence, the rocks of the Lebendun nappe are interpreted as pre-Triassic in ag

The structural history of the Mont Blanc massif with regard to models for its recent exhumation

The tectonic evolution of the Mont Blanc range with regard to its cooling and exhumation history has been discussed and debated over many years and is still controversial. Recently, several low-temperature thermochronology studies have determined the cooling history of the massif in considerable detail and various tectonic models proposed to explain the young and fast exhumation signal established from these studies. Here we present detailed field data from the wider Mont Blanc area and assess possible exhumation processes in terms of these field constraints. Our observations indicate that none of the major faults or shear zones around the Mont Blanc massif (i.e. Mont Blanc shear zone, Mont Blanc back-thrust, Penninic thrust) was active in Late Neogene times and that young exhumation is therefore not controlled by movements along these structures. We demonstrate that the position of Mont Blanc in the bend of the western Alps plays an important role in its tectonic history and that simple 2D models are insufficient to explain its evolution. Interference between NW-SE compression and orogen-parallel extension along the Rhône-Simplon fault system resulted in a complex regional structural pattern, with strike-slip movements on both sides of the Mont Blanc massif. Young brittle faults are predominantly strike slip without significant vertical offset. The young (<2Ma) rapid exhumation of Mont Blanc is more broadly distributed and cannot be directly linked to discrete faults bounding the massif. The mechanisms driving this recent accelerated exhumation must similarly be of broader scal

The 3D interplay between folding and faulting in a syn-orogenic extensional system: the Simplon Fault Zone in the Central Alps (Switzerland and Italy)

Extensional low-angle detachments developed in convergent or post-collisional settings are often associated with upright folding of the exhumed footwall. The Simplon Fault Zone (SFZ) is a Miocene low-angle detachment that developed during convergence in the Central Alps (Switzerland and Italy), accommodating a large component of orogen-parallel extension. Its footwall shows complex structural relationships between large-scale backfolds, mylonites and a discrete brittle detachment and forms a 3D gneiss dome reflecting upright folding with fold axes oriented both parallel and perpendicular to the extension direction. We present a regional study that investigates the interplay between folding and faulting and its implications for the resulting exhumation pattern of the gneiss dome using 3D geometric modelling (computer software GeoModeller), together with a consideration of the chronological relationships from field relationships and 40Ar/39Ar dating. The early Simplon mylonitic fabric is clearly folded by both extension-parallel and extension-perpendicular folds, forming a doubly plunging antiform, whereas the later ductile-to-brittle fabric and the cataclastic detachment are only affected by wavy extension-parallel folds. This observation, together with the interpreted cooling pattern across the SFZ, suggests that updoming of the footwall initiated at the onset of faulting during ductile shearing around 18.5Ma, due to coeval extension and perpendicular convergence. New 40Ar/39Ar dating on micas (biotite and muscovite) from a sample affected by a strong crenulation cleavage parallel to the axial plane of the Glishorn and Berisal parasitic folds establishes that these folds formed at ca. 10Ma, broadly coeval with late movement along the more discrete detachment of the SFZ. These extension-parallel folds in the footwall of the SFZ developed due to continued convergence across the Alps, accelerating ongoing exhumation of the western Lepontine dome and promoting coeval uplift of the crystalline Aar and Gotthard massifs in the late Miocene

Modern methods in Structural Geology and Tectonics: a series of articles in honour of Martin Burkhard (1957-2006)

We briefly report on the conference held in May 2007 in honour of Martin Burkhard in Neuchâtel. We also present a short account of the achievements of this prominent scientist and teacher by selectively citing some of his work and briefly introduce the series of articles presented here, which represent a tribute to Martin Burkhard. We also add a complete list of publications by Martin Burkhard and co-worker

Pseudotachylyte as field evidence for lower-crustal earthquakes during the intracontinental Petermann Orogeny (Musgrave Block, Central Australia)

Geophysical evidence for lower continental crustal earthquakes in almost all collisional orogens is in con\ufb02ict with the widely accepted notion that rocks, under high grade conditions, should \ufb02ow rather than fracture. Pseudotachylytes are remnants of frictional melts generated during seismic slip and can therefore be used as an indicator of former seismogenic fault zones. The Fregon Subdomain in Central Australia was deformed under dry sub-eclogitic conditions of 600\u2013700 \u25e6 C and 1.0\u20131.2 GPa during the intracontinental Petermann Orogeny (ca. 550 Ma) and contains abundant pseudotachylyte. These pseudotachylytes are commonly foliated, recrystallized, and cross-cut by other pseudotachylytes, re\ufb02ecting repeated generation during ongoing ductile deformation. This interplay is interpreted as evidence for repeated seismic brittle failure and post- to inter-seismic creep under dry lower-crustal conditions. Thermodynamic modelling of the pseudotachylyte bulk composition gives the same PT conditions of shearing as in surrounding mylonites. We conclude that pseudotachylytes in the Fregon Subdomain are a direct analogue of current seismicity in dry lower continental crust

Geochronological constraints on the evolution of the Periadriatic Fault System (Alps)

Fault rocks from various segments of the Periadriatic fault system (PAF; Alps) have been directly dated using texturally controlled Rb-Sr microsampling dating applied to mylonites, and both stepwise-heating and laser-ablation 40Ar/39Ar dating applied to pseudotachylytes. The new fault ages place better constraints on tectonic models proposed for the PAF, particularly in its central sector. Along the North Giudicarie fault, Oligocene (E)SE-directed thrusting (29-32Ma) is currently best explained as accommodation across a cogenetic restraining bend within the Oligocene dextral Tonale-Pustertal fault system. In this case, the limited jump in metamorphic grade observed across the North Giudicarie fault restricts the dextral displacement along the kinematically linked Tonale fault to ~30km. Dextral displacement between the Tonale and Pustertal faults cannot be transferred via the Peio fault because of both Late Cretaceous fault ages (74-67Ma) and sinistral transtensive fault kinematics. In combination with other pseudotachylyte ages (62-58Ma), widespread Late Cretaceous-Paleocene extension is established within the Austroalpine unit, coeval with sedimentation of Gosau Group sediments. Early Miocene pseudotachylyte ages (22-16Ma) from the Tonale, Pustertal, Jaufen and Passeier faults argue for a period of enhanced fault activity contemporaneous with lateral extrusion of the Eastern Alps. This event coincides with exhumation of the Penninic units and contemporaneous sedimentation within fault-bound basin

The DAV and Periadriatic fault systems in the Eastern Alps south of the Tauern window

Alpine deformation of Austroalpine units south of the Tauern window is dominated by two kinematic regimes. Prior to intrusion of the main Periadriatic plutons at ~30Ma, the shear sense was sinistral in the current orientation, with a minor north-side-up component. Sinistral shearing locally overprints contact metamorphic porphyroblasts and early Periadriatic dykes. Direct Rb-Sr dating of microsampled synkinematic muscovite gave ages in the range 33-30Ma, whereas pseudotachylyte locally crosscutting the mylonitic foliation gave an interpreted 40Ar-39Ar age of ~46Ma. The transition from sinistral to dextral (transpressive) kinematics related to the Periadriatic fault occurred rapidly, between solidification of the earlier dykes and of the main plutons. Subsequent brittle-ductile to brittle faults are compatible with N-S to NNW-SSE shortening and orogen-parallel extension. Antithetic Riedel shears are distinguished from the previous sinistral fabric by their fine-grained quartz microstructures, with local pseudotachylyte formation. One such pseudotachylyte from Speikboden gave a 40Ar-39Ar age of 20Ma, consistent with pseudotachylyte ages related to the Periadriatic fault. The magnitude of dextral offset on the Periadriatic fault cannot be directly estimated. However, the jump in zircon and apatite fission-track ages establishes that the relative vertical displacement was ~4-5km since 24Ma, and that movement continued until at least 13M