Envisioning New Roles for Land-Grant University Extension: Lessons Learned from Climate Change Outreach in the Midwest

Recent surveys with farmers, Extension personnel, and agricultural advisors reveal interesting findings about climate change beliefs and who people trust for climate related information. Based on these results this article discusses a new direction for land-grant university Extension and research in addressing issues related to climate change and agriculture

What have we learned about CO2 leakage from field injection tests?

Legislation and guidelines developed for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) have set performance requirements to minimize leakage risk, and to quantify and remediate any leaks that arise. For compliance it is necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the possible spread, fate and impacts of any leaked CO2, and also the ability to detect and quantify any leakage. Over the past decade, a number of field scale CO2 release experiments have been conducted around the world to address many of the uncertainties regarding the characteristics of near-surface expression of CO2 in terms of the impact and quantitation of CO2 leaks. In these experiments, either free phase or dissolved CO2 is injected and released into the shallow subsurface so as to artificially simulate a CO2 leak into the near-surface environment. The experiments differ in a number of ways, from the geological conditions, surface environments, injection rates and experimental set-up - including the injection and monitoring strategy. These experiments have provided abundant information to aid in the development of our scientific understanding of environmental impacts of CO2 while assessing state of the art monitoring techniques. We have collated a global dataset of field-scale shallow controlled release experiments that have released CO2 at depths shallower than 25 m. The dataset includes 14 different field experiment locations, of which nine intended to release CO2 to surface, and the remaining sites intended for CO2 to remain in the shallow subsurface. Several release experiments have been conducted at half of these sites, and so in total, 42 different CO2 release tests have taken place at the 14 sites we examine. These experiments and their results are scrutinised to establish: (i) the range of experimental approaches and environments explored to date (such as the environment, subsurface conditions, injection strategy and whether gaseous or dissolved CO2 were injected and in what quantities); (ii) the range of CO2 injection and surface release rates at these experiments; (iii) the collective learnings about the surface and subsurface manifestation of the CO2 release, the spread and fate of the CO2, rates of CO2 flux to surface, and methods of measuring these; (iv) how successfully current approaches can detect and quantify CO2. This allows us to highlight where uncertainties remain and identify knowledge gaps that future experiments should seek to address. We also draw on the collective experiences to identify common issues or complications, and so recommend ‘best practice’ guidelines for experiment design and reporting at future CO2 release experiments

Exploratory study of the use of community treatment orders with clients of an Ontario ACT team

Community Treatment Orders (CTOs) have raised questions about coercion, lack of autonomy, and effectiveness in reducing hospitalizations and improving service users’ quality of life. This study examined the experiences of clients and clinicians when CTOs are used in combination with Assertive Community Treatment (ACT) in a recovery oriented approach. Eleven clients who were or had previously been on a CTO and eight ACT clinicians were interviewed. Although most clients had negative feelings about CTOs, some acknowledged their lives had improved. Clinicians reported that the decision to employ a CTO is sometimes debated within the team but they agreed that combining CTOs and ACT resulted in regular access to mental health supports, fewer hospitalizations and overall improvement of quality of life for their clients

An experimental investigation into quantifying CO2 leakage in aqueous environments using chemical tracers

Chemical tracers can be an effective means of detecting, attributing and quantifying any leaks to the surface from geological CO2 stores. CO2 release experiments have found it difficult to ascertain the fate, or quantify the volume of CO2 without the application of tracers. However, a significant proportion of global CO2 storage capacity is located offshore, and the marine environment poses constraints that could limit the success of using tracers. These constraints include uncertainties in the behaviour of tracers in marine sediments and the water column and sampling challenges. However, to date there have been few experimental investigations to address these uncertainties. Here, we used a benchtop experimental setup to explore how effectively methane, a common constituent of captured CO2 and of reservoir fluids, can aid the quantitation of CO2 leakage in aqueous environments. The experiment simulated gas leakage into sediments that mimic the seabed, and we measured the partitioning of co-released gases under different environmental conditions and injection rates. We find that the style of seepage and the fate of the CO2 are affected by the presence of a sand layer and the injection rate. We discuss the implications for leak monitoring approaches, including how tracers may be used to quantify the leak rates and fate of CO2 in aqueous environments. Our work contributes to ongoing efforts to develop robust offshore monitoring system that will assure operators, regulatory bodies and the public of CO2 storage integrity

What Have We Learnt About CO2 Leakage in the Context of Commercial-Scale CCS?

The viability of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) depends on the reliable containment of injected CO2 in the subsurface. Robust and cost-effective approaches to measure monitor and verify CO2 containment are required to demonstrate that CO2 has not breached the reservoir, and to comply with CCS regulations. This includes capability to detect and quantify any potential leakage to surface. It is useful to consider the range of possible leak rates for potential CO2 leak pathways from an intended storage reservoir to surface to inform the design of effective monitoring approaches. However, in the absence of a portfolio of leakage from engineered CO2 stores we must instead learn from industrial and natural analogues, numerical models, and laboratory and field experiments that have intentionally released CO2 into the shallow subsurface to simulate a CO2 leak to surface. We collated a global dataset of measured or estimated CO2 flux (CO2 emission per unit area) and CO2 leak rate from industrial and natural analogues and field experiments. We then examined the dataset to compare emission and flux rates and seep style, and consider the measured emission rates in the context of commercial scale CCS operations. We find that natural and industrial analogues show very wide variation in the scale of CO2 emissions, and tend to be larger than leaks simulated by CO2 release experiments. For all analogue types (natural, industrial, or experiment) the emission rates show greater variation between sites than CO2 flux rates. Quantitation approaches are non-standardized, and that measuring and reporting both the CO2 flux and seep rate is rare as it remains challenging, particularly in marine environments. Finally, we observe that CO2 fluxes tend to be associated with particular emission characteristics (vent, diffuse, or water-associated). We propose that characteristics could inform the design and performance requirements for CO2 leak monitoring approaches tailored to detect specific emission styles

Bursting bubbles: can experiments and analogues help stakeholders and the public visualise risks?

Laboratory experiments, natural analogues and pilot projects have been fundamental in developing scientific understanding of risk and uncertainty from georesource exploration. International research into CO2 and CH4 leakage provide scientific understanding of potential leakage styles, rates and environmental impacts. However, the value of these experiments as a communication tool for stakeholders and the wider public is often overlooked in the form of visual information and comparisons. Quantifiable laboratory experiments, measurement of gas at natural springs or controlled release of CO2 (e.g. Quantifying and Monitoring Potential Ecosystem Impacts of Geological Carbon Storage Project (QICS)) raise awareness and commitment to understanding environmental impacts and geological complexities. Visuals can greatly facilitate communication, and research into public understanding of the subsurface demonstrates that quality and scale of schematics can affect perceived risk. Here we consider how public perception of subsurface activities could be shaped by relevant and applicable research that shares accessible and visually engaging information. Could images showing bubbles of seeping gas, or showcasing monitoring methods and capabilities, help to contextualise risks and geoscientific concepts and shape opinions? Can these materials aid dialogue between the wider scientific community, publics and stakeholders? We propose that future projects could improve dialogue through use of context-appropriate visuals to enhance dialogue on risks, impacts and monitoring of subsurface engineering technologies

Do advisors perceive climate change as an agricultural risk? An in-depth examination of Midwestern U.S. Ag advisors’ views on drought, climate change, and risk management

Through the lens of the Health Belief Model and Protection Motivation Theory, we analyzed interviews of 36 agricultural advisors in Indiana and Nebraska to understand their appraisals of climate change risk, related decision making processes and subsequent risk management advice to producers. Most advisors interviewed accept that weather events are a risk for US Midwestern agriculture; however, they are more concerned about tangible threats such as crop prices. There is not much concern about climate change among agricultural advisors. Management practices that could help producers adapt to climate change were more likely to be recommended by conservation and Extension advisors, while financial and crop advisors focused more upon season-to-season decision making (e.g., hybrid seeds and crop insurance). We contend that the agricultural community should integrate long-term thinking as part of farm decision making processes and that agricultural advisors are in a prime position to influence producers. In the face of increasing extreme weather events, climatologists and advisors should work more closely to reach a shared understanding of the risks posed to agriculture by climate change

The impact of water on CO2 leak rate measurements for CCS projects

Chemical tracers are a promising technique to detect, attribute and quantify CO2 leakage from geological CO2 stores. Indeed, CO2 release experiments have found it difficult to ascertain the fate, or quantify the volume of CO2 without the application of tracers. However, a significant proportion of global CO2 storage capacity is located offshore, and the marine environment poses constraints that could limit the success of using tracers. These constraints include uncertainties in the behaviour of tracers in marine sediments and the water column and sampling challenges. To model some of these challenges, we used a benchtop experimental setup to explore how well methane, a common constituent of captured CO2 and of reservoir fluids, could aid the quantitation of CO2 leakage in aqueous environments. The experiment simulated gas leakage into sediments that mimic the seabed, and we measured the partitioning of co-released gases under different environmental conditions and injection rates. We find that the style of seepage and the fate of the CO2 are affected by the presence of a sand layer and the injection rate. This has implications for leak monitoring approaches, including how tracers may be used to quantify the leak rates and fate of CO2 in aqueous environments

Communicating leakage risk in the hydrogen economy : lessons already learned from geoenergy industries

Hydrogen may play a crucial part in delivering a net zero emissions future. Currently, hydrogen production, storage, transport and utilisation are being explored to scope opportunities and to reduce barriers to market activation. One such barrier could be negative public response to hydrogen technologies. Previous research around socio-technical risks finds that public acceptance issues are particularly challenging for emerging, remote, technical, sensitive, uncertain or unfamiliar technologies - such as hydrogen. Thus, while the hydrogen value chain could offer a range of potential environmental, economic and social benefits, each will have perceived risks that could challenge the introduction and subsequent roll-out of hydrogen. These potential issues must be identified and managed so that the hydrogen sector can develop, adapt or respond appropriately. The geological storage of hydrogen could present challenges in terms of the perceived safety of the approach. Valuable lessons can be learned from international research and practice of CO2 and natural gas storage in geological formations (for carbon capture and storage, CCS, and for power, respectively). Here, we explore these learnings. We consider the similarities and differences between these technologies, and how these may affect perceived risks. We also reflect on lessons for effective communication and community engagement. We draw on this to present potential risks to the perceived safety of - and public acceptability of – the geological storage of hydrogen. One of the key lessons learned from CCS and natural gas storage is that progress is most effective when risk communication and public acceptability is considered from the early stages of technology development