Citizen science can add value to Phytophthora monitoring: five case studies from western North America

Phytophthora species are plant pathogens responsible for many notable biological invasions in agricultural, forests, and natural ecosystems. Detection and monitoring for invasive introductions of Phytophthora spp. is time and resource intensive. Development of citizen science detection and monitoring programs can aid in these efforts focused on reducing Phythophthora impacts. There are multiple methods for monitoring and detecting Phytophthora invasions suitable for citizen science approaches such as, leaf sampling, stream baiting or soil collections. Here we summarize five active projects in western North America where citizen scientists are aiding the monitoring and research efforts surrounding Phytophthora species and their impacts. Projects varied in scope, scale, methods, and capacity, but each project increased citizen scientists’ abilities for surveillance and advanced detection or knowledge of Phytophthora species. Some projects were integrated with school programs, others involved hands-on training with small groups, and another approach invited mass participation from interested citizens. Overall, all projects had positive outcomes multiplied across education, monitoring, and research. Together these case studies demonstrate how citizen scientists can amplify surveillance efforts, advance baseline knowledge, and reduce the impacts of biological invasions

Genome-wide association studies and expression-based quantitative trait loci analyses reveal roles of HCT2 in caffeoylquinic acid biosynthesis and its regulation by defense-responsive transcription factors in Populus.

3-O-caffeoylquinic acid, also known as chlorogenic acid (CGA), functions as an intermediate in lignin biosynthesis in the phenylpropanoid pathway. It is widely distributed among numerous plant species and acts as an antioxidant in both plants and animals. Using GC-MS, we discovered consistent and extreme variation in CGA content across a population of 739 4-yr-old Populus trichocarpa accessions. We performed genome-wide association studies (GWAS) from 917 P. trichocarpa accessions and expression-based quantitative trait loci (eQTL) analyses to identify key regulators. The GWAS and eQTL analyses resolved an overlapped interval encompassing a hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA:shikimate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase 2 (PtHCT2) that was significantly associated with CGA and partially characterized metabolite abundances. PtHCT2 leaf expression was significantly correlated with CGA abundance and it was regulated by cis-eQTLs containing W-box for WRKY binding. Among all nine PtHCT homologs, PtHCT2 is the only one that responds to infection by the fungal pathogen Sphaerulina musiva (a Populus pathogen). Validation using protoplast-based transient expression system suggests that PtHCT2 is regulated by the defense-responsive WRKY. These results are consistent with reports of CGA functioning as an antioxidant in response to biotic stress. This study provides insights into data-driven and omics-based inference of gene function in woody species

The infection biology of Sphaerulina musiva: clues to understanding a forest pathogen.

Trees in the genus Populus and their interspecific hybrids are used across North America for fiber production and as a potential source of biofuel. Plantations of these species are severely impacted by a fungal pathogen, Sphaerulina musiva, the cause of leaf spot and stem canker. An inoculation protocol that does not rely on stem wounding to achieve infection was recently developed. Using this protocol two experiments were conducted to examine infection biology and disease development in the S. musiva-Populus interaction. In the first experiment non-wounded stems of one moderately resistant clone (NM6) and one susceptible clone (NC11505) were inoculated and examined by scanning electron microscopy at six different times (6 h, 12 h, 24 h, 72 h, 1 week, and 3 weeks) post-inoculation. The images indicate that the pathogen appears to enter host tissue through small openings and lenticels and that there are no significant differences in the penetration rate between the moderately resistant (NM6) and susceptible (NC11505) clones at 12 h post-inoculation. In a second experiment a histological comparison of stem cankers for resistant clone DN74 and susceptible clone NC11505 were conducted at three time points (3 weeks, 5 weeks, and 7 weeks) post-inoculation. Distinct differences in disease development were apparent between the resistant and susceptible clones at each time point, with the susceptible clone exhibiting a weak and delayed defense response. These results suggest, that following penetration, the pathogen may be able to interfere with the defense response in the susceptible host

Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of the surface of mock-inoculated control trees at two different heights post-inoculation (PI).

<p>(A) Surface of upper 15 cm stem segment, lacking any openings/lenticels, collected from the susceptible clone NC11505. (B) Surface of upper 15 cm stem segment, lacking any openings/lenticels, collected from the moderately resistant clone NM6. (C) Surface of lower 15 cm stem segment, with small openings/lenticels indicated by the arrow, of clone NC11505. (D) Surface of lower 15 cm stem segment, with small openings/lenticels indicated by an arrow, of clone NM6. Magnification and scale bars included on the bottom of each image.</p

Transverse sections of resistant clone DN74 at 3 time points (3 weeks, 5 weeks, and 7 weeks) post-inoculation (PI) depicting anatomical responses to inoculation with a conidial suspension of <i>Sphaerulina musiva</i>.

<p>(A) Bright field micrograph of necrotic lenticel (L) 3 weeks PI. Necrophylactic periderm (NP; indicated by an arrow) is apparent immediately below the infected L at the margin between the cortex (COX) and Periderm (P). (B) Fluorescent micrograph of necrotic lenticel 3 weeks PI. NP layer is evident as thick square shaped cells fluorescing bright purple immediately below the lenticel within the COX (indicated by an arrow). (C) Bright field micrograph of necrotic lesion, bounded by NP, 5 weeks PI. (D) Fluorescent micrograph of two necrotic lesions 5 weeks PI. NP is evident as thick layer of purple fluorescing cells (indicated by arrows) immediately below the necrotic area (Nec). (E) Bright field micrograph of Nec 7 weeks PI. Nec is bounded by two successive layers of NP (indicated by arrows), with occluded xylem (X) cells (dark red to black cells in the X) adjacent to the Nec. (F) Fluorescent micrograph of necrotic lesion with two successive layers of NP appearing purple (indicated by arrows). Blue auto-fluorescence viewed under ultraviolet light. Filter parameters: Excitation filter G 365, Beam Splitter FT 395, Emission filter BP 445/50. Green auto-fluorescence viewed under ultraviolet light. Filter parameters: Excitation filter BP 450–490, Beam Splitter FT 510, Emission filter BP 515–565. P = periderm. Pf = Primary phloem fiber. VC = Vascular Cambium. Scale bars = 200 µm.</p

A comparison of the mean, range, and standard deviation of penetration rates on the moderately resistant clone NM6 (<i>Populus maximowiczii</i>×<i>P. nigra</i>) and susceptible clone NC11505 (<i>P. maximowiczii</i>×<i>P. trichocarpa</i>) inoculated with a spore suspension of <i>Sphaerulina musiva</i>.

<p>The percentage of germ tubes entering natural openings was estimated by counting a total of 100 spores in two to three fields of view for each tree using a scanning electron microscope. Means were compared using a two-sample t-test (degrees of freedom = 1) means with the same letter are not significantly different (<i>P</i> = 0.41).</p

Transverse sections of susceptible clone NC11505 at 3 time points (3 weeks, 5 weeks, and 7 weeks) post-inoculation (PI) depicting anatomical responses to inoculation with a conidial suspension of <i>Sphaerulina musiva</i>.

<p>(A) Bright field micrograph of necrotic stem lesion 3 weeks PI. Necrotic area (Nec) bounded by layer of impervious tissue (IT indicated with arrow). (B) Fluorescent micrograph of necrotic lesion 3 weeks PI. IT layer visible as light purple fluorescence (indicated with arrows). (C) Bright field micrograph of necrotic lesion 5 weeks PI. Nec is bounded by a layer of necrophylactic periderm (NP; indicated with arrow). (D) Fluorescent micrograph of necrotic lesion 5 weeks PI. Nec is bounded by IT layer and NP layer (indicated with arrows). (E) Bright field micrograph of necrotic stem 7 weeks PI. Entire cortex (COX) is necrotic and filled with collapsed cells. (F) Fluorescent micrograph of necrotic lesion 7 weeks PI. NP and IT are absent from the Nec. Blue auto-fluorescence viewed under ultraviolet light. Filter parameters: Excitation filter G 365, Beam Splitter FT 395, Emission filter BP 445/50. Green auto-fluorescence viewed under ultraviolet light. Filter parameters: Excitation filter BP 450–490, Beam Splitter FT 510, Emission filter BP 515–565. P = periderm. Pf = primary phloem fiber. X = Xylem. VC = Vascular cambium. Scale bars = 200 µm.</p

Bright field micrographs of transverse sections through 7-week-old mock-inoculated controls of the resistant (DN74) and susceptible (NC11505) clones depicting the gross anatomy of stem tissue.

<p>(A) Stem anatomy of the mock-inoculated clone DN74. (B) Stem anatomy of mock inoculated clone NC11505. COX = Cortex, L = Lenticel, P = Periderm, PF = Phloem fiber. Scale bars = 200 µm.</p

Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of stems inoculated with a conidial suspension of <i>Sphaerulina musiva</i> at two different times (6 h and 12 h) post-inoculation (PI) depicting germination and penetration on the moderately resistant (NM6) and susceptible (NC11505) clones.

<p>(A) SEM micrograph of stem surface of NC11505 depicting <i>S. musiva</i> conidium 6 h PI. (B) SEM micrograph of stem surface of NM6 and conidium of <i>S. musiva</i> 6 h PI. (C) SEM micrograph of stem surface of NC11505 with conidium and germ tube of <i>S. musiva</i> entering a lenticel 12 h PI. (D) SEM micrograph of stem surface of NM6 with conidium and germ tube of <i>S. musiva</i> penetrating a small opening 12 h PI. (E) Micrograph (C) at increased magnification depicting penetration of lenticel by a germ tube. (F) SEM micrograph of stem surface of resistant clone NM6 with germ tube of <i>S. musiva</i> penetrating a small opening 12 h PI. Tr = trichome, Sp = conidium, L = lenticel, GT = germ tube, Op = small opening. Magnification and scale bars included on the bottom of each image.</p

Bright field micrographs of susceptible clone (NC11505), at three different time points (3 weeks, 5 weeks, and 7 weeks) post-inoculation (PI) with blue stained hyphae, indicated by arrows, visible in different tissues.

<p>(A) Longitudinal section depicting hyphal growth in cortex at 3 weeks PI. (B) Transverse section through cortex depicting hyphal growth at 5 weeks PI. (C) Transverse section through xylem at 7 weeks PI depicting hyphal growth in xylem vessels (XV) and rays (XR). (D) Longitudinal section through xylem tissue depicting hyphal growth in vessels and rays. COX = Cortex, Pf = Primary phloem fiber, Pyc = Pycnidium, P = Periderm. Scale bars = 200 µm.</p