Social Influences on Children\u27s Option Valuations

Children use a variety of strategies to determine the relative value of the objects they encounter, ranging from simple heuristics to the integration of information from multiple sources. Do children also incorporate social information - specifically, information pertaining to others\u27 preferences - into their object valuations? Valuation is an important component of economic exchange, and is key to assessing how resources are fairly distributed or favors reciprocated. As humans often need to make critical decisions with limited information, garnering information about value via social sources might be an adaptive strategy. This dissertation has two primary goals: (1) to develop methodology to assess value discrimination in young children, and (2) to investigate how young children\u27s resource valuations - and subsequent preferences - might be influenced by the preferences of their peers. These goals were realized across four empirical studies. The study presented in Chapter 2 used an established resource distribution methodology, the Dictator Game, to test whether 4-year-old children\u27s preferences were influenced by the preferences of their peers. Children observed, via video, four peers sequentially display the same preference for one of two stickers. Each peer expressed liking one sticker and disliking the other. Subsequently, in the Dictator Game, children kept more stickers their peers liked than stickers their peers disliked, suggesting that children extracted informational content about the value of the resources from their peers and used that to guide their own preferences. The studies presented in Chapter 3 aimed to clarify these findings, extend this research to younger children, and develop new resource distribution tasks to assess value discrimination. Three studies investigated whether 3-year-old children differentially distribute two resources (stickers) based on an a priori preference for one of the resources (Study 1), use peers\u27 preferences (e.g., their likes and dislikes) to inform their valuations and subsequent resource distribution when children do not have an a priori preference for a resource (Study 2), and incorporate peers\u27 preferences into their own choices (Study 3). The results suggest that young children used their a priori, explicitly stated, preferences to differentially distribute the resources, giving their favorite option to a prosocial agent who was presumably more deserving than the other agent. Further, after viewing four peers express a consistent preference for one option over another, children appeared to devalue the option their peers disliked, as they systematically avoided selecting it for a prosocial agent, a new child, and themselves. Interestingly, in the resource distribution tasks, girls, but not boys, appeared to increase their value of the option their peers liked, as they gave more liked than neutral (non-valenced) resources to the prosocial agents. Finally, children chose equally between the liked and neutral resources as their own favorite, while avoiding the disliked resources. These findings suggest that children\u27s resource valuations are informed by the preferences of their peers. Further, it is possible that subjective negative information (e.g., others\u27 dislikes) plays a privileged role in influencing children\u27s choice behavior. These findings are discussed in the context of a negativity bias, and several explanations are considered to explain the gender difference. Together, the studies provide new insight into children\u27s early economic reasoning, and highlight how peer preferences influence children\u27s developing valuations

Peer Victimization and Dysfunctional Reward Processing: ERP and Behavioral Responses to Social and Monetary Rewards

Peer victimization (or bullying) is a known risk factor for depression, especially among youth. However, the mechanisms connecting victimization experience to depression symptoms remains unknown. As depression is known to be associated with neural blunting to monetary rewards, aberrant responsiveness to social rewards may be a key deficit connecting socially stressful experiences with later depression. We, therefore, sought to determine whether adolescents’ experiences with social stress would be related to their current response to social rewards over less socially relevant monetary rewards. Neural responses to monetary and social rewards were measured using event-related potentials (ERPs) to peer acceptance and rejection feedback (Island Getaway task) and to monetary reward and loss feedback (Doors task) in a sample of 56 late adolescents/emerging young adults followed longitudinally since preschool. In the Island Getaway task, participants voted whether to “keep” or “kick out” each co-player, providing an index of prosocial behavior, and then received feedback about how each player voted for the participant. Analyses tested whether early and recent peer victimization was related to response to rewards (peer acceptance or monetary gains), residualized for response to losses (peer rejection or monetary losses) using the reward positivity (RewP) component. Findings indicated that both experiencing greater early and greater recent peer victimization were significantly associated with participants casting fewer votes to keep other adolescents (“Keep” votes) and that greater early peer victimization was associated with reduced neural response to peer acceptance. Early and recent peer victimization were significantly more associated with neural response to social than monetary rewards. Together, these findings suggest that socially injurious experiences such as peer victimization, especially those occurring early in childhood, relate to two distinct but important findings: that early victimization is associated with later reduced response to peer acceptance, and is associated with later tendency to reject peers. Findings also suggest that there is evidence of specificity to reward processing of different types; thus, future research should expand studies of reward processing beyond monetary rewards to account for the possibility that individual differences may be related to other, more relevant, reward types

Four-year-old Children Align their Preferences with those of their Peers

Children express preferences for a wide range of options, such as objects, and frequently observe the preferences that others express towards these things. However, little is know about how these initial preferences develop. The present research investigated whether one particular type of social information – other children’s preferences – influences children’s own preferences. Four-year-old children observed, via video, two boys and two girls display the same preference for one of two stickers. Each child (peer) expressed liking for one sticker and dislike for the other. Then children completed two rounds of the Dictator Game, a classic resource distribution task. In each round, children distributed either 10 'liked' stickers or 10 'disliked' stickers (counterbalanced) between themselves and another child who was not present. If the preferences expressed by their peers influenced children’s own preferences, children should keep more of the 'liked' than 'disliked' stickers for themselves. In line with this prediction, more children kept more liked than disliked stickers, indicating their distribution patterns were influenced by their peers’ preferences. This finding suggests that children extracted informational content about the value of the stickers from their peers and used that information to guide their own preferences. Children might also have aligned their preferences with those of their peers to facilitate social bonding and group membership. This research demonstrates the strong influence of peers on children’s developing preferences, and reveals the effect of peer influence via video – a medium that young children are frequently exposed to but often struggle to learn from in other contexts

Four-year-old Children Align their Preferences with those of their Peers DataSet

Children express preferences for a wide range of options, such as objects, and frequently observe the preferences that others express towards these things. However, little is know about how these initial preferences develop. The present research investigated whether one particular type of social information – other children’s preferences – influences children’s own preferences. Four-year-old children observed, via video, two boys and two girls display the same preference for one of two stickers. Each child (peer) expressed liking for one sticker and dislike for the other. Then children completed two rounds of the Dictator Game, a classic resource distribution task. In each round, children distributed either 10 liked stickers or 10 disliked stickers (counterbalanced) between themselves and another child who was not present. If the preferences expressed by their peers influenced children’s own preferences, children should keep more of the liked than disliked stickers for themselves. In line with this prediction, more children kept more liked than disliked stickers, indicating their distribution patterns were influenced by their peers’ preferences. This finding suggests that children extracted informational content about the value of the stickers from their peers and used that information to guide their own preferences. Children might also have aligned their preferences with those of their peers to facilitate social bonding and group membership. This research demonstrates the strong influence of peers on children’s developing preferences, and reveals the effect of peer influence via video – a medium that young children are frequently exposed to but often struggle to learn from in other contexts

Preliminary Validity for a Brief Caregiver-Report Screener for Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors in Children Under Age 8

Objective: Children as young as preschool-aged can experience suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs). Despite calls for increased youth suicide risk screening and assessment, we lack tools for identifying the youngest children experiencing STBs who might be at heighted risk for suicide, self-harm, and related distress. Clinician and caregiver skepticism about children's ability to self-report STBs and concerns about negative effects of directly asking children about STBs contribute to this gap. A caregiver-report measure would address these concerns and give providers a much-needed tool for assessing STBs in young children. Method: A 4-item caregiver-report suicide-risk screener was developed and administered to caregivers of 80 children aged 4-7 years (Mage=6.06; SD=1.12) from diverse sociodemographic backgrounds. Caregivers and children independently completed an age-appropriate clinical diagnostic interview to assess STBs. Children with a history of STBs were oversampled. Results: Of the 80 suicide-risk screeners administered, 18 were positive (caregiver endorsed at least one item). Relative to caregiver diagnostic interviews, the caregiver-STB screener showed 85% sensitivity and 98.3% specificity for detecting STB risk. Additionally, relative to either caregiver or child diagnostic interviews, the screener showed 68% sensitivity and 98.2% specificity for detecting STB risk. Conclusion: The caregiver-STB screener for children under age 8 demonstrates favorable psychometric properties when compared to a reference standard. If further validated, this screener could offer clinicians a new brief tool to assess suicide risk and related mental health issues in young children. Its high specificity suggests that positive screens should be taken seriously as indicators of risk, warranting further follow-up

Meta-analytic techniques reveal that corvid causal reasoning in Aesop’s Fables tasks is driven by trial-and-error learning DataSet

DataSet associated with: Meta-analytic techniques reveal that corvid causal reasoning in Aesop’s Fables tasks is driven by trial-and-error learnin

Early Pubertal Timing Predicts Suicidality and Self-Injurious Behaviors in Preadolescents: Evidence for Concurrent and New-Onset Risk

Importance: New predictors of self-injurious thoughts and behaviors (SITBs) in preadolescence are urgently needed to address this escalating public health crisis of youth self-harm and suicidality. Early pubertal development is easily assessed and theoretically justified, yet strikingly absent from current conversations of SITB risk. Objective: Determine whether advanced puberty at age 9/10, relative to same-aged peers, predicts current and/or new-onset SITBs. Design: This longitudinal study used data from the baseline, 1-year, and 2-year follow-up waves of the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study. Setting: Data were collected at 22 study sites in the US between 06/01/16 and 01/15/21. Participants: 11,878 preadolescents (baseline ages 9/10 years) and caregivers participated in the baseline wave. Exposure: Relatively advanced youth-reported pubertal development at 9/10 years. Main Measures: SITBs (suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and non-suicidal self-injury) as reported by preadolescents (each wave) and their caregiver (baseline, 2-year follow-up) in a computerized version of the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (KSADS). Results: Preadolescents with baseline self-reported puberty, KSADS (N=8,708; 44.6% female; 60.8% white non-Hispanic), and demographic information were included. Bayesian mixed-effects models were estimated for test and replication split halves. Baseline preadolescent-reported puberty predicted the presence of any SITB before or at baseline (OR=1.50, 2.5% CI=1.23, 97.5% CI=1.85). Baseline puberty also predicted new-onset SITBs between baseline and 2-year follow-up in preadolescents SITB-naive at baseline (OR=2.26, 2.5% CI=1.66, 97.5% CI=3.21). Findings were similar for each SITB independently and when controlling for other known SITB risk-factors (familial depression, parental monitoring, family conflict, total symptoms) in follow-up and replication analyses. Associations between puberty and SITBs did not differ meaningfully by sex, race, or ethnicity. Conclusions and Relevance: Preadolescents reporting relatively advanced puberty at 9/10 years were more likely to have previously experienced SITBs and, if SITB naïve, were more likely to experience onset of SITBs across the following two years. Findings were not explained by child psychopathology or other familial and psychosocial factors known to predict SITBs. Screening preadolescents for advanced puberty at age 9/10 and applying targeted suicide-screening for those youth showing advanced puberty should be considered in primary care and mental health settings

Preteen Suicide Risk Clinical Pathways for Pediatricians: Special Recommendations

We are in a youth mental health crisis that includes unprecedented and staggeringly high rates of suicidal ideation and behaviors in preteens. Because the majority of children and preteens attend well-child primary care visits, equipping pediatricians with brief and effective suicide screening and assessment skills is a priority for youth suicide prevention and management. Current clinical practice guidelines focus on adolescent and young adult populations, leaving pediatric practitioners without vital tools to detect and prevent suicide in younger populations. The objective of this project was to develop evidence-informed suicide risk screening pathways for pediatric practitioners to implement with school-age and preadolescent patients (ages 5-12). We convened a group of researchers and practitioners with expertise in preadolescent suicide, pediatric medicine, behavioral health screening integration with primary care, and child development. They reviewed the empirical literature and existing practice guidelines to iterate on a clinical screening pathway. As a result, we provide tools that help determine risk level, suicide screening and assessment workflow, and resource contacts, which are evidence-informed guides for suicide detection and prevention in children aged 5-12. Scripts for introducing the suicide screening and assessment to parents and children and how to discuss findings from screening are included in an appendix. Future research should refine and improve ways to manage preteen suicide risk in primary care settings