Osmanlı Para Vakıfları ve Çağdaş Faizsiz Finans Kurumlarının Karşılaştırılması

The Ottoman State is accepted as the civilization of waqfs so that the borrowing by people who needed cash was provided by waqfs that had cash as capital. These waqfs operated their capitals within the limits that were drawn by Ottoman ulemas under the effects of interest ban in Islamic states. These waqfs can be thought of as the pioneers of modern Islamic financial institutions. The cash waqfs (CWs) became the factor of stability in the Ottoman financial system with controlling high usury rates and determining the market interest rate. Today, the participation banks as fulfill the function of interest-free financial institutions. The participation banks that bring together the people who want to borrow money without interest and the people who want to operate his capital in accordance with Islamic rules (with halal ways) differ from cash waqfs in some respects. Even though they follow similar financial methods, the difference in their purposes and other characteristics as interest-free financial institutions and the pioneering role of CWs will be examined in this study.Vakıf medeniyeti olarak tanımlanan Osmanlı Devleti’nde nakit ihtiyacı olanların borçlanması da sermayesi nakit paradan oluşan vakıflar ile karşılanmıştır. İslam devletlerinde olan faiz yasağının etkisiyle bu vakıflar Osmanlı ulemasının çizmiş olduğu sınırlar çerçevesinde sermayelerini işletmiştir. Bu vakıfları günümüz faizsiz finans kurumlarının öncüleri olarak düşünebiliriz. Dönemlerinde piyasa dışı yüksek borçlanma oranlarını kontrol eden ve bir nevi piyasa faizini belirleyen bir işlev gören para vakıfları aynı zamanda uzun yıllar Osmanlı finans sisteminde istikrar unsuru olmuşlardır. Günümüzde ise bu işlevi faizsiz finans kurumları olarak tanımlayabileceğimiz Katılım bankaları yerine getirmektedir. Faizden kaçınarak borçlanmak isteyen kişiler ile olan sermayesini helâl yollar ile değerlendirmeyi düşünen kişileri bir araya getiren katılım bankaları belirli yönlerden para vakıflarından ayrılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, her ne kadar benzer finansal metotlar izleseler de, faizsiz finans kurumları ile onların öncüsü para vakıflarının amaçları ve diğer özellikleri arasındaki farklılıklar incelenecektir

UNTAXED SOCIAL-MEDIA PROBLEM AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS

Advancement of internet innovation brings both pros and cons by changing the rules and dynamics of fields as trade, public service, education, entertainment, intelligence, and defense. The developments in web technology provided a lot of conveniences. On the other hand, this situation brought many problems because of lack of laws and rules in this field. One example of these challenges is those websites do not have branches in every country are not subject to taxation. This situation is directly related to the sovereign rights of the countries. Major international internet companies are only subject to tax in the countries where their headquarters are located and do not pay taxes in other nations where they earn money. Particularly in the developing countries, the tax loss reaches serious dimensions. This study will focus on the problem of social media taxation. Also, solution proposals will be presented especially for developing countries

Finansal İstikrar ve Para Vakıfları Etkisi: Rumeli Para Vakıfları Örnekleri

Vakıflar, İslam toplumlarında yardımlaşmanın ve toplumsal dayanışmanın yanında sosyal ve ekonomik hayatın önemli unsurları olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Vakıfların en önemli özelliği bu yardımlaşma ve dayanışmayı kurumsal hale getirmeleridir. Osmanlı Devleti’nde toplumsal hayatta çok önemli bir yer tutan vakıflar, Osmanlı Devleti’nin bir vakıf medeniyeti olarak anılmasına vesile olmuştur. Yapılan akademik çalışmalar ve analizler de vakıfların ekonomik sistemde merkez hazinesi ve tımar sisteminin hemen arkasında üçüncü bir ekonomik kurum olarak ortaya çıktığını göstermektedir. Bu sebeple, Osmanlı ekonomik yapısı üzerine yapılacak çalışmalarda vakıfların rolünü incelemek de oldukça önemlidir. Bu vakıfların bir türü “para (nukud) vakıfları” bu çalışmanın konusunu oluşturacaktır. Birincil kaynaklardan incelenen vakfiyeler üzerinden para vakıfların kuruluşları ve dayandıkları İslami arka plan incelenecektir. Ayrıca bu vakıfların uyguladıkları kâr oranlarının uzun dönemli analizi üzerinde durulacaktır. Aynı dönemlerde Avrupa’da uygulanan faiz oranları ile Osmanlı para vakıflarının kâr oranlarının karşılaştırması yapılacaktır. Bölge olarak Rumeli’nin seçilmesi de bu bölge hakkında para vakıfları hakkında yeterli derecede çalışma olmamasından ötürüdür. We meet waqf not only institutions provided the assistance and social solidarity between people but also an important elements of social and economic life in Islamic societies. The most important feature of waqf is to make this cooperation and solidarity institutional. The waqfs that had a very important place in social life in the Ottoman State have been instrumental that Ottoman State is a civilization of waqfs. Academic studies and analysis also shows that waqf system was third place in economic institutions after central treasury and timar system in economic system (Özcan, 2008, p. 143). Therefore, it is important to examine the role of waqf in studies on Ottoman economic structure. One type of this waqfs, “cash waqfs” will be subject of this study. The establishment procedure of cash waqfs and Islamic background of cash waqfs will be examined from primary sources (waqfiyahs). Moreover, we will emphasized long-term analysis on the profit rates that were determined by cash waqfs. The comparison between the European interest rates and profit rates of Ottoman cash waqfs at same era will be made. The region of Rumelia is selected as subject because there are not enough works about cash waqfs in this region

A Comparison between Ottoman Cash Waqfs (CWs) and Participation Banks and Modern Interest-free Financial Institutions

The Ottoman State is accepted as the civilization of waqf so that the borrowing of people who needed cash was provided by waqfs that had cash as capital. These waqfs operated their capitals within the limits that were drawn by Ottoman ulema under the effects of interest ban in Islamic states. These waqfs can be thought of as the pioneers of modern Islamic financial institutions. The CWs became the factor of stability in the Ottoman financial system with controlling high usury rates and determining the market interest rate. Today, the participation banks as interest-free financial institutions fulfill this function. The participation banks that bring together the people who want to borrow money without interest and the people who want to operate his capital with halal ways are separated from cash waqfs in some respects. In this study, even though they follow similar financial methods, the difference in their purposes and other characteristics of interest-free financial institutions and their pioneer of CWs will be examined

XV. ve XIX. Yüzyıllar Arasında Osmanlı Para Vakıfları ve Modern Finans Kurumlarının Karşılaştırılması

Most of the services provided by modern states to their citizens today were provided by the waqfs during the Ottoman period. The fact that the influence of Islamic religion on the social life was high was one of the most important factors driving people to establish the waqfs. The waqfs founded by philanthropists financed such social needs as religious services, education and infrastructure. The cash waqfs (CWs) were one of the waqf types that financed the needs of the society. The CWs whose capital was cash money provided financial sources to entrepreneurs who were in need of cash according to Islamic methods. The CWs continued to function until the last period of the Ottomans. That the Ottomans used CWs to carry out the functions of the modern financial institutions of Europe is important to understand the Ottoman economic and financial mentality. By using the primary sources, this study aims to analyze the Ottoman economic mentality through studying CWs. In addition, the financial institutions operating in Europe in the same Günümüzde modern devletler tarafından vatandaşlara sağlanan çoğu hizmetler, Osmanlı döneminde vakıflar tarafından sağlanıyordu. İslâm dininin toplumsal hayat üzerindeki etkisinin yüksek olması insanları vakıf kurmaya iten önemli etkenlerin başında geliyordu. Hayırseverler tarafından kurulan vakıflar, dini hizmetler, eğitim, altyapı vb. toplumsal ihtiyaçları finanse etmekteydi. Para vakıfları, toplumun ihtiyaçlarını finanse eden vakıf türlerinden birisidir. Sermayesi nakit paradan oluşan bu vakıflar ihtiyacı olan girişimcilere İslâmî usullere göre finansman sağlamıştır. Para vakıfları Osmanlıların son dönemlerine kadar işleyişini devam ettiren kurumlar olmuştur. Osmanlıların, aynı dönemde Avrupa’daki modern finansal kurumların gelişmesine karşı para vakıfları ile bu kurumların işlevlerini yerine getirmesi, Osmanlı iktisadi ve finansal zihniyetini anlamak açısından önemlidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı birincil kaynaklarından incelenen para vakıfları ile Osmanlı iktisadi zihniyetini analiz etmektir. Ayrıca aynı dönemde faaliyet gösteren ve para vakıfları ile çağdaş olarak Avrupa’da faaliyet gösteren finansal kurumlar da incelenecek ve iktisadi zihniyetler arasında karşılaştırma yapılmaya çalışılacaktır

A Look to Cash Waqfs as an Indicator of Ottoman Financial Mentality

In spite of the fact that the waqfs have existed with the history of humankind and are helpful in all social communities, they have a different and important place in Islamic societies. The waqfs have made assistance and solidarity between individuals organized and institutionalized. Especially in Islamic societies, a great importance has been attached to waqfs. The waqfs that helped institutionalize the concept of infaq met many needs of the community. One of the Islamic states where the waqfs are very active was the Ottoman Empire. The size of the waqf services in the Ottomans expanded so much that, besides the human services, waqfs for injured birds and sick animals were established. The fact that the waqfs are so widespread in the state has made it possible to refer the Ottoman Empire as a waqf civilization. One of the waqf types operating in the Ottoman Empire was the cash waqfs (CWs) which had cash money as capital. The CWs operated its capital with various Islamic finance methods. Revenues from the operating money were used in the direction of waqf purpose. The CWs provided the vital necessities of the society such as education and religion in the period they were active in the Ottoman Empire. Another function of these waqfs was to operate as a micro-credit mechanism. Through these waqfs, the surplus and the accumulated savings in the hands of the asset owners were made available to merchants, farmers, craftsmen, and artisans. Hence, these waqfs have served as resource transfer channels as well as functioning as a charity in the society. The main goal of CWs, which is the pioneer of modern Islamic financial institutions, is different from the goal of Islamic interest-free financial institutions. The CWs did not transfer the profits they got to the waqf founder or owner. The income obtained was spent to fulfill the charitable services. Therefore, these institutions created an altruistic finance model operating within the borders of Islamic prohibitions and orders. This model has its own principles. In our study, the financial mentality of the Ottoman society in the context of the CWs and how this mentality shaped the CWs will be discussed. The basic principles of this mentality and model will be emphasized

Kırım’ın Merkantilist Dönemde Karadeniz Ticaretindeki Yeri

Located on major trade routes, its location at Blacksea, climate, inherited heritage provided having a live economic and commercial life in Crimea. The main sources of infome was animals but Crimea was also well developed at wine trade, the slave trade, sources of salt and dried fishery. From the participated in Ottoman Empire in the last quarter of 15th century to the last quarter of 18th century, Ottoman Empire protected its control on Crimea which was one of the provinces of the Ottoman Empire recognized the various concessions. The trade and economic relations of the Crimea which established a strong and as well as unique link between Ottoman Empire with the various concessions and variety of economic activities will form the basis of this study

Merkezi Yönetimin Vergi Gelirlerini Yerel Yönetimlere Dağıtımı (Küreyerelleşme)

Main questions of this study are “How much autonomy?” and “Has autonomy take to feudalism?” Although the resolution of issue according to effective, efficient, rational and fair principles about the income distribution between the central administration and the municipalities is a precondition of permanent and efficient services of local governments. This study aims to identify regional goverments tasks and improve services of central governments with taxes (VAT) distirbution method. We also aim toincrease taxes that are collected from regional governments with the method of glocalization. In addition, if sharing criteria was different, it would how a change between the years 2003-2011 will be investigated. During the comprehensive analysis of these years with public revenues on the basis of VAT, local government’s expenditure, criteria/data to be applied to the share of public revenues to municipalities whether changing the method financing of municipalities can make local governments more efficient and productive will be explored.In a political structure that municipalities are financed from the center, it is very difficult to find an appropriate combination of equality and justice in the distribution of income. Local governments must have privileges which are proportionate with responsibilities on own mandates and source of income for producing to serve as an effective and efficient local services. The results show that if the central governments give budget to regional government according to taxes that are collected in this region, the productivity of taxation increase and regional government can collect taxes easier

XV. ve XIX. Yüzyıllar Arasında Osmanlı Para Vakıfları ve Modern Finans Kurumlarının Karşılaştırılması

Most of the services provided by modern states to their citizens today were provided by the waqfs during the Ottoman period. The fact that the influence of Islamic religion on the social life was high was one of the most important factors driving people to establish the waqfs. The waqfs founded by philanthropists financed such social needs as religious services, education and infrastructure. The cash waqfs (CWs) were one of the waqf types that financed the needs of the society. The CWs whose capital was cash money provided financial sources to entrepreneurs who were in need of cash according to Islamic methods. The CWs continued to function until the last period of the Ottomans. That the Ottomans used CWs to carry out the functions of the modern financial institutions of Europe is important to understand the Ottoman economic and financial mentality. By using the primary sources, this study aims to analyze the Ottoman economic mentality through studying CWs. In addition, the financial institutions operating in Europe in the same Günümüzde modern devletler tarafından vatandaşlara sağlanan çoğu hizmetler, Osmanlı döneminde vakıflar tarafından sağlanıyordu. İslâm dininin toplumsal hayat üzerindeki etkisinin yüksek olması insanları vakıf kurmaya iten önemli etkenlerin başında geliyordu. Hayırseverler tarafından kurulan vakıflar, dini hizmetler, eğitim, altyapı vb. toplumsal ihtiyaçları finanse etmekteydi. Para vakıfları, toplumun ihtiyaçlarını finanse eden vakıf türlerinden birisidir. Sermayesi nakit paradan oluşan bu vakıflar ihtiyacı olan girişimcilere İslâmî usullere göre finansman sağlamıştır. Para vakıfları Osmanlıların son dönemlerine kadar işleyişini devam ettiren kurumlar olmuştur. Osmanlıların, aynı dönemde Avrupa’daki modern finansal kurumların gelişmesine karşı para vakıfları ile bu kurumların işlevlerini yerine getirmesi, Osmanlı iktisadi ve finansal zihniyetini anlamak açısından önemlidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı birincil kaynaklarından incelenen para vakıfları ile Osmanlı iktisadi zihniyetini analiz etmektir. Ayrıca aynı dönemde faaliyet gösteren ve para vakıfları ile çağdaş olarak Avrupa’da faaliyet gösteren finansal kurumlar da incelenecek ve iktisadi zihniyetler arasında karşılaştırma yapılmaya çalışılacaktır

A Look to The Ottoman Cash Waqfs As Altruistic Finance Model

Although the waqfs have existed with the history of humanity and are useful in all societies, they had different role and place in Islamic societies. The waqfs have made institutionalized cooperation and solidarity among people. Especially in Islamic societies, great importance has been attached to waqfs. The waqfs that helped institutionalize the concept of infaq met many needs of the community. One of the Islamic states where the foundations are very active was the Ottoman Empire. The size of the waqf services in the Ottoman Empire expanded so much that, besides the human services, waqfs for injured birds and sick animals were established. The fact that the waqfs are so widespread in the state has made it possible to refer to the Ottoman Empire as a waqf civilization. One of the waqf types operating in the Ottoman Empire was the cash waqfs (CWs) which were made up of cash in the capital. The CWs operated the cash that made up its capital with various Islamic finance methods. Revenues from the operating money were used in the direction of waqf purpose. The CWs provided the vital necessities of the society such as education and religion in the period they were active in the Ottoman Empire. Another function of these waqfs was to operate as a micro-credit mechanism. Through these waqfs, the surplus and the accumulated savings in the hands of the asset owners were made available to merchants, farmers, craftsmen, and artisans. Hence, these waqfs have served as resource transfer channels as well as functioning as a charity in the society. The ultimate goal of CWs, which is the pioneer of modern interest-free financial institutions today, is different from these institutions. The CWs did not transfer the profits they got to the waqf founder or owner. The income obtained has been spent to fulfill the charitable services in the direction of the waqf purposes. Therefore, these institutions created Altruistic Finance Model operating within the borders of Islamic prohibitions and orders. In our study, the financial mentality of the Ottoman society in the context of the CWs and how this mentality shaped the CWs will be discussed