Olfactory conditioning of animals exposed to flumethrin within the colony.

<p>Flu pre-treatment (control): PER conditioning before the flumethrin-treatment period; Flu treatment: PER conditioning during the flumethrin-treatment period; Flu post-treatment: PER conditioning two weeks after the flumethrin-treatment period. Number of animals in each group (n = 90).</p

The effect of flumethrin as a reinforcing component.

<p>Three groups were tested with <i>Age</i> as the CS in all three groups. The control group received 30% sucrose solution as US, the flumethrin 10 group received 10 µg/g of flumethrin-sucrose solution as US, the flumethrin 100 group received 100 µg/g of flumethrin-sucrose solution as US. Number of animals in each group (n = 90).</p

Flumethrin transmits an inhibitory (punishing) component in PER conditioning.

<p>The figure shows the conditioned responses in the second phase of the experiment. Age/+ continued to receive sucrose as a reward, Age/− received no sucrose reward anymore (extinction), and Age+Flu/− received Age then followed by Flu, without sucrose reward. Number of animals in each group (n = 90).</p

Means±SE of bee mortality when fed with 10 ug/g f<i>lumethrin</i> sucrose (Flumethrin 10 group) or 100 ug/g (Flumethrin 100 group) <i>Flumethrin</i> sucrose solution and control group (each group n = 30).

<p>Means±SE of bee mortality when fed with 10 ug/g f<i>lumethrin</i> sucrose (Flumethrin 10 group) or 100 ug/g (Flumethrin 100 group) <i>Flumethrin</i> sucrose solution and control group (each group n = 30).</p

Flumethrin as a component of the CS or US.

<p>Five groups were run in parallel. Age +: CS: Age, US: sucrose; Flu+Age/+: CS: first Flu then Age, US: sucrose; Age/−: CS: Age, no US; Age+Flu/+: CS: Age first then Flu, US: sucrose; Flu/+: CS: Flu, US: sucrose. Number of animals in each group (n = 90).</p

The effect of imidacloprid on the percentage of bees choosing a safe over a dangerous feeder.

<p>Stars above bars indicate treatments in which bees significantly avoided the dangerous feeder (<i>P</i><0.05). Different shades of gray correspond to different imidacloprid concentrations. A dashed line shows the null hypothesis expectation: 50% of bees choose the safe feeder.</p

Modulation of olfactory learning in honey bees data

Modulation of olfactory learning in honey bees dat

Mean proportion of choices for the safe feeder over five trials.

<p>The different treatments are identified above each plot (1 = all choices for safe feeder). Different shades of gray correspond to different imidacloprid concentrations. Standard error bars are shown.</p

How bee colonies allocate foraging among food sources with different food qualities and levels of predator danger.

<p>Sucrose-only feeders are shown as white bars, the butterfly control as a striped bar and the small (sm) and big hornet species as gray and black bars, respectively. Standard error bars are shown. In each graph, different letters indicate significant differences. We show the mean number of foragers at the feeder arrays in (A) experiment 1, (B) experiment 2, and (C) experiment 3 parts A and B. In experiment 3 part A, feeders had sucrose only (bars with thick lines). Part B used the same range of sucrose concentrations, but with the indicated hornet species at the higher sucrose concentrations.</p

Experiment 2 dataset DRYAD

Dataset shows bee visits to feeders. The first tab shows data from binary trials (option 1 versus option 2), and the other tabs show data from ternary trials in which the option-1 and option-2 similar phantoms are include